3003PSY Research Method and Statistics Assignment
Investigation of the relationships between attitudes toward same-sex relationships, individual differences, and social psychological factors.
Attitudes toward same-sex relationships (ATSR) have evolved dramatically over the past few decades, with increasing public support for the legal recognition of same-sex relationships (Watt & Elliot, 2019). However, there remains a significant divide in opinion on the issue of same-sex relationships. Research suggests there are a multitude of factors that influence individuals’ ATSR. Negative ATSR can have a variety of negative outcomes for individuals and society, including discrimination and marginalisation which may impact on LGBTQ+ individuals’ mental health. Such attitudes may also result in reduced access to healthcare and economic harm for individuals in same-sex relationships. To better understand factors that may relate to ATSR, this research proposes five key factors that may explain variations in attitudes towards same-sex relationships.
One factor may be negative stereotypes about same-sex relationships. Those who hold negative stereotypes may view such relationships as immoral, unnatural, or unhealthy (Pacilli et al., 2011). Another factor that may influence these attitudes is individuals’ identification with their own sexual orientation (Doyle et al., 2015). This research posits that individuals that place a high importance on their own sexual orientation would have more positive ATSR and would be more likely to support changes that support such relationships.
It is also possible that people view same-sex relationships from more social or value-specific perspectives, and as such, perceived symbolic and realistic threat may also be relevant to understanding differences in these attitudes. A symbolic threat arises from a clash of values (e.g. same-sex relationships jeopardise religious freedom) between different groups or individuals and can lead to a sense of fear/anxiety among those who perceive themselves to be under threat (Clifton, 2011). Conversely, realistic threat is the perception of a more tangible danger that may pose a genuine risk to a group. For example, an individual may perceive the government’s focus on same-sex relationships as a matter that disrupts discussion of more pressing political or economic issues. Individuals that perceive more symbolic or realistic threats associated with same-sex relationships should therefore hold more negative attitudes toward same-sex relationships (Murphy, 2011).
Another more social-psychological concept that may influence attitudes toward same-sex relationships is social dominance orientation (SDO), which refers to the extent to which individuals endorse the belief that some groups are inherently superior to others and should have greater power/status in society. Individuals with high levels of SDO may be more likely to oppose same-sex relationships, viewing it as a threat to the social hierarchy or traditional sexuality norms that underlie it (Dru, 2007).
Finally, religiosity may influence ATSR. Highly religious individuals may be more likely to view same-sex relationships as a violation of their religious values and norms (Finlay & Walther, 2003). This effect may be particularly pronounced for individuals that hold conservative beliefs regarding gender and relationships and who view same-sex relationships as incompatible with their religious teachings.
In conclusion, there are several potential factors that influence ATSR. The research underpinning these factors, however, is largely correlational in nature and fails to bring together several variables into a single model. By examining these factors together in their association with attitudes toward same-sex relationships, we will gain a better understanding of the unique and shared associations between each factor and the outcome variable. The modelling may be used to inform the development of targeted interventions aimed at fostering positive perceptions of ATSR. To that end, a researcher has run a study collecting data from a sample of adults in the community and asked them to complete an online survey. The survey comprised several questions, and as is clear in the associated coding book and data file, not all variables are of interest to the immediate research question. In this assignment, you are tasked with responding to the following research question:
What are the unique associations between same-sex relationship stereotypes, sexual orientation identification, perception of symbolic and/or realistic threat, social dominance orientation and religiosity on self-reported attitudes toward same-sex relationships?
To do this you will work with the dataset provided. You will need to identify the variables that are relevant to answering your research question and use the procedures and analyses as taught in this course. You will respond to a series of questions that you would work through when running a research study.
Notes.
- The total marks for this assignment are 80, and equal to 40% of the course grade
- You do not need to do any research in this area. The references in the questionnaires are provided at the end of this document in the coding booksection
- The assignment does not require a literature review
- The assignment does not require an abstract or reference list
- You have a maximum word limit of 2000 words, but may not need this many to complete the assignment
- Use APA 7thformat where appropriate, including tables
- You will need to use the skills developed in the tutorials to run the analyses
- Consultation with the online resources provided will also be helpful for conceptually understanding the analyses required to answer the research question
You will need to:
- Identify the relevant variables in the dataset required to answer your research question.
- Recode and transform the variables into a meaningful format for your selected analysis.
- Compute the relevant scale scores based on the transformed variables for your selected analysis.
- Use the computed scale scores to answer the questions below.
Answer the following questions:
In your assignment use the question (in bold) and question number as subheadings when answering each question (these subheadings are not part of the wordcount).
|
Question |
Marks |
|
1. What are the constructs of interest in the RQ |
3 |
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2. How are each construct operationalized? |
1.5 |
|
3. Based on the information provided on Page 1, state the hypothesized associations for your model · Write a sentence or two stating hypotheses as you would at the end of an introduction of a research report. Use the information in the introduction above to guide your predictions. You are not to review the literature. |
2.5 |
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4. What are the internal reliabilities (Cronbach Alphas) of the scale scores? |
2.5 |
|
5. Do the scales have acceptable reliability? · What criteria have you based your decision on? |
2 |
|
6. Write a brief statement describing each of the measures used · This is effectively a measures section of a research report and is to be presented in sentence/paragraph format · Report each measure in your data set that is associated with the variables of interest, ensure you cover: o Name of the measure used to tap the construct(s) o Scoring details o Did you create a composite scale or summed total? Provide possible min/max scores and what higher/lower scores represent o Cronbach’s alpha (from this dataset, as calculated above) o Previously established Cronbach’s alpha (where possible/available) |
6 |
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7. Report the following information in an appropriate table: · Mean and SD of continuous variables · Intercorrelations between all predictors, and the outcome variable · Follow APA7 formatting |
4.5 |
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8. Perform the appropriate checks of the relevant assumptions, and address the following: |
|
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a) Report on the distribution and shape of the residuals · What do the plots suggest about the shape of the residuals? Are there problems – why/why not? · What criteria did you use to determine if there were any problems |
4 |
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b) · Provide details of any univariate outliers (e.g., which variables have outliers, and how many there are) · What criteria did you use to determine the presence of univariate outliers? |
3 |
|
c) Check for multivariate outliers · Provide details of any multivariate outliers (e.g., which variables have outliers, and how many there are) · What criteria did you use to determine the presence of multivariate outliers? |
3 |
|
9. Are any of the scales considered significantly skewed? |
|
|
a) Report the skewness for all continuous variables in the dataset (including direction) · What criteria did you use to determine skew? |
6 |
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b) Perform the appropriate transformations on relevant variables · Which variables required transformations? · Which transformations did you use? · What was the effect of the transformation/s (did the transformations help with skew? Did the transformations impact the model?, etc) · Did you use the transformed or non-transformed data in the final model? State and justify your decision for each relevant variable |
8.5 |
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10. Write a paragraph outlining your testing of assumptions and how you addressed any violations · Write this section as taught in tutorials · Needs to be written in sentence/paragraph format |
6 |
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11. Perform the appropriate analysis to respond to the RQ question; using your final model, respond to the following: · How many participations were in the final analysis? · Did you remove any data entry errors? · Did you need to remove influential datapoints? · What was your justification for your decision for removing (or keeping) datapoints? |
4 |
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12. Report the results from your analysis · Write a paragraph reporting your results addressing the RQ · Use the example covered in the tutorials · Use the appropriate table(s) to report the analysis |
8.5 |
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13. · Report the unique variance for each variable in the model · Report the shared variance |
3 |
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14. Make a conclusion of your results · Write a paragraph interpreting your results in the context of the RQ · Were the hypotheses supported? · Note the variance accounted, including unique and shared – what does this mean? · Discuss any limitations of the model and/or data · What can the researcher conclude? |
7 |
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15. Adherence to APA formatting and specific formatting guides stipulated in the marking criteria · As relevant, e.g., to tables, reporting of measures, use of questions as headers in the document |
4 |
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16. Output from final analysis attached as Appendix |
1 |
Note. Maximum marks are displayed in the Marks column for each question
3003PSY Coding Book
This is the coding book associated with the data set available on L@G for the assignment. Please read the below information carefully. The scoring information for each measure in the data set is provided. In research, you rarely get a data set with only the variables you are interested in. You will notice that the data set and coding book have a number of variables. Carefully consider the relevance of each variable and only select and analyse variables that enable you to respond to your research question!
Data set for assignment:
Gay Male Stereotype Measure
This 10-item scale measured the extent to which individuals hold stereotypical beliefs about gay men. Each item started with “Gay men are …” and descriptors were used to finish each statement. Sample descriptors included promiscuous and emotional.
- Participants responded on a 9-point Likert scale from 1 ‘strongly disagree’ to 9 ‘strongly agree’.
- Higher scores indicate a greater endorsement of negative gay male stereotypes.
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Source: Clifton, J. P. (2011). The role of intergroup threat in attitudes toward same-sex marriage and its beneficiaries (Master's thesis, Humboldt State Univesity).
|
m2m1 |
Promiscuous |
|
m2m2 |
Dependent |
|
m2m3 |
Emotional |
|
m2m4 |
Shy |
|
m2m5 |
Perverted |
|
m2m6 |
Affectionate |
|
m2m7 |
Effeminate (Feminine) |
|
m2m8 |
Cowardly |
|
m2m9 |
Weak |
|
m2m10 |
Impulsive |
Lesbian Female Stereotype Measure
This 10-item scale measured the extent to which individuals hold stereotypical beliefs about lesbian women. Each item started with “Lesbian women are…” and descriptors were used to finish each statement. Sample items included athletic and dominant.
- Participants responded on a 9-point Likert scale from 1 ‘strongly disagree’ to 9 ‘strongly agree’.
- Higher scores indicate a greater endorsement of negative lesbian female stereotypes.
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Source: Clifton, J. P. (2011). The role of intergroup threat in attitudes toward same-sex marriage and its beneficiaries (Master's thesis, Humboldt State Univesity).
|
w2w1 |
Strong |
|
w2w2 |
Ambitious |
|
w2w3 |
Competitive |
|
w2w4 |
Athletic |
|
w2w5 |
Forceful |
|
w2w6 |
Dominant |
|
w2w7 |
Promiscuous |
|
w2w8 |
Direct |
|
w2w9 |
Aggressive |
|
w2w10 |
Insecure |
Same-Sex Relationship Stereotype Measure
This 10-item scale measured the extent to which individuals hold stereotypical beliefs about same-sex relationships. Each item started with “Same-sex relationships are…” and descriptors were used to finish each statement. Sample descriptors included maladjusted and abnormal.
- Participants responded on a 9-point Likert scale from 1 ‘strongly disagree’ to 9 ‘strongly agree’
- Higher scores indicate a greater endorsement of negative same-sex relationship stereotypes
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Cronbach’s Alpha = .94
- Source: Clifton, J. P. (2011). The role of intergroup threat in attitudes toward same-sex marriage and its beneficiaries (Master's thesis, Humboldt State Univesity).
|
Relat1 |
Maladjusted |
|
Relat2 |
Obsessed with sex |
|
Relat3 |
Incapable of commitment |
|
Relat4 |
Marked by unhappiness |
|
Relat5 |
Abnormal |
|
Relat6 |
Dysfunctional |
|
Relat7 |
Deviant |
|
Relat8 |
Marked by traditional gender roles (one partner takes on "masculine" roles and the other takes on "feminine" roles) |
|
Relat9 |
Unsatisfying |
|
Relat10 |
Prone to discord |
Identification with Sexual Orientation Measure
This is a 4-item scale that measured individual’s identification with their own sexual orientation.
- Participants responded on a 9-point Likert scale from 1 ‘strong disagree’ to 9 ‘strongly agree’
- Higher scores indicate a greater identification with the individuals’ sexual orientation
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Source: no specific reference as this scale was developed for this study
|
Id_a (R) |
Overall, my sexual orientation has very little to do with how I feel about myself. |
|
Id_b |
My sexual orientation is an important reflection of who I am. |
|
Id_c (R) |
My sexual orientation is unimportant to my sense of what kind of person I am. |
|
Id_d |
In general, my sexual orientation is an important part of my self-image. |
Symbolic and Realistic Threats Measure
This is a 22-item scale that measured the perceived threat from same-sex marriage in two domains – symbolic and realistic. Symbolic threat was related to the potential threat same-sex marriage has on values, culture and religion, for example. Realistic threat was related to the potential threat same-sex marriage has on more “practical” matters, such as increased tax or increased burden on the healthcare system.
- Participants responded on a 9- point Likert scale from 1 ‘strong disagree’ to 9 ‘strongly agree’
- Higher scores indicate a greater perceived threat (of a symbolic and/or realistic nature) from same-sex marriage
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Source: no specific reference as this scale was developed for this study
|
Threat1 |
The government's focus on same-sex marriage issues has led it to ignore more pressing political issues and economic problems |
|
Threat2(R) |
Same-sex marriage poses little or no threat to the cultural practices of the majority of Americans |
|
Threat3(R) |
Domestic partners and married people have the same rights under the law. |
|
Threat4 |
Same-sex marriage undermines the meaning of the traditional family. |
|
Threat5(R) |
Marital protections, such as social security and health care benefits, should be available to same-sex partners |
|
Threat6 |
The legalization of same-sex marriage jeopardizes religious freedom |
|
Threat7 |
Parents should teach their children about marriage without public schools teaching their kids that gay marriage is okay. |
|
Threat8 |
Same-sex marriage is a result of a change in values of the American population |
|
Threat9 |
Supporting same-sex marriage is causing the U.S. to lose some of its political power. |
|
Threat10 |
Same-sex marriage is an attempt to legislate morality |
|
Threat11 |
States that allow weddings by same-sex couples will see an increase in tax revenue associated with wedding spending. |
|
Threat12 |
Same-sex marriage violates the sanctity of marriage. |
|
Threat13 |
The purpose of marriage is to conceive children, therefore only a man and a woman should be married |
|
Threat14(R) |
Gay men and lesbians desire relationships similar in quality to heterosexuals. |
|
Threat15 |
If same-sex marriage was legalized, churches would be forced to perform same-sex marriages even if they did not agree with same-sex marriage |
|
Threat16(R) |
The family will be strengthened by the recognition of same-sex marriages. |
|
Threat17 |
Same-sex marriage violates religious beliefs held by the American majority |
|
Threat18 |
Recognition of same-sex marriage poses a threat to society because public schools will be forced to teach that homosexuality is normal |
|
Threat19 |
Same-sex marriage damages society’s moral standards. |
|
Threat20 |
Same-sex marriage will lead to unnecessary financial burdens, such as social security and health care benefits. |
|
Threat21(R) |
The values of gay men and lesbians regarding family are the same as those of heterosexuals. |
|
Threat22 |
Supporting same-sex marriage is a waste of taxpayer's money |
Negative Contact Scale
This is a 14-item scale that measured the amount of negative contact an individual has had in the past with individuals that identified as homosexual. Participants responded to how frequently they felt an individual that identified as homosexual did one of the listed behaviours.
- Participants responded on a 9- point Likert scale from 1 ‘not frequent at all’ to 9 ‘extremely frequently’
- Higher scores indicate more perceived negative contact with individuals that identify as homosexual
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Source: Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., & Morrison, K. R. (2009). Intergroup threat theory. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination, (pp. 43–54). Psychology Press
|
experience1 |
Treated as inferior |
|
experience2 |
Insulted |
|
experience3 |
Ridiculed |
|
experience4 |
Discriminated against |
|
experience5 |
Rejected |
|
experience6 |
Harassed |
|
experience7 |
Put down |
|
experience8 |
Taken advantage of |
|
experience9 |
Unfairly criticized |
|
experience10 |
Verbally abused |
|
experience11 |
Threatened with harm |
|
experience12 |
Made to feel unwanted |
|
experience13 |
Physically harmed |
|
experience14 |
Intimidated |
Social Dominance Orientation Scale
This is the 15-item version of a scale that measured an individual’s preference for social hierarchy and inequality
- Participants responded on a 9-point Likert scale from 1 ‘strongly disagree’ to 9 ‘strongly agree’
- Higher scores indicate a stronger endorsement of SDO, meaning the individual is more likely to support social hierarchies that give higher status and power to some groups over others.
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Cronbach’s alpha = .89
- Source: Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (2001). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge University Press.
|
SocDom1(R) |
We should strive to make incomes as equal as possible. |
|
SocDom2 |
In getting what you want, it is sometimes necessary to use force against other groups. |
|
SocDom3(R) |
It would be good if groups could be equal. |
|
SocDom4 |
To get ahead in life, it is sometimes necessary to step on other groups. |
|
SocDom5(R) |
All groups should be given an equal chance in life. |
|
SocDom6 |
It's probably a good thing that certain groups are at the top and other groups are at the bottom. |
|
SocDom7(R) |
We would have fewer problems if we treated people more equally. |
|
SocDom8 |
Sometimes other groups must be kept in their place. |
|
SocDom9 |
It's OK if some groups have more of a chance in life than others. |
|
SocDom10(R) |
Group equality should be our ideal. |
|
SocDom11 |
If certain groups stayed in their place, we would have fewer problems. |
|
SocDom12(R) |
We should do what we can to equalize conditions for different groups. |
|
SocDom13 |
Inferior groups should stay in their place. |
|
SocDom14(R) |
No one group should dominate in society. |
|
SocDom15 |
Some groups of people are simply inferior to other groups. |
Attitudes toward Same Sex Marriage Questionnaire
This is a 12-item measure, adapted from Renfro et al. (2006), that addressed attitudes toward same sex marriage.
- Participants responded from 0 ‘strongly disagree’ to 10 ‘strongly agree’
- Higher scores indicate more positive attitudes toward same sex marriage
- This measure can be computed as a total composite score
- Cronbach’s Alpha = .96
- Source: Renfro, C. L., Duran, A., Stephan, W. G., & Clason, D. L. (2006). The role of threat in attitudes toward affirmative action and its beneficiaries. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(1), 41–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00003.x
|
SSMAtts1 |
I am extremely supportive of same-sex marriage. |
|
SSMAtts2(R) |
Same-sex marriage should be ended as soon as possible. |
|
SSMAtts3(R) |
The institution of marriage should be kept strictly between a man and a woman. |
|
SSMAtts4 |
I would support a federal policy to legalize same-sex marriage. |
|
SSMAtts5 |
The goals of same-sex marriage are good. |
|
SSMAtts6(R) |
All in all, I oppose laws that allow same-sex couples the right to marry |
|
SSMAtts7 |
The legalization of same-sex marriage is an important step toward the acceptance of individuals who are not heterosexual. |
|
SSMAtts8 |
Same-sex marriage ensures equal rights for all relationships regardless of sexual orientation. |
|
SSMAtts9 |
I support individuals who are not heterosexual seeking marriage rights. |
|
SSMAtts10(R) |
Men and women naturally complement one another, therefore a union between two men or two women should not be recognized in marriage. |
|
SSMAtts11(R) |
I would not support a constitutional amendment legalizing same-sex marriage. |
|
SSMAtts12 |
Same-sex couples deserve all of the rights that heterosexual couples can enjoy; therefore same-sex marriage should be available for two men or two women who choose to marry. |
Additional measures and demographic variables
- What is your year of birth?
- What is your gender?
- 1 = Male, 2 = Female, 3 = Non-binary, 4 = Pref not to say
- What is your sexual orientation?
- 1 = Heterosexual, 2 = Homosexual, 3 = Bisexual
- Are you in a relationship?
- 1 = Single, 2 = Cohabitating, 3 = Married/Widowed, 4 = Divorced/Separated
- Are you religious?
- 1 = Yes, 2 = No, 3 = Prefer not to say
