CHAPTER 11

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Chapter 11

CHAPTER 11

Managing conflict

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Learning objectives (LO)

11.1 Deal with unresolved anger in a constructive way.

11.2 Identify the source of conflict as it is occurring.

11.3 Understand what your natural conflict style is and know which strategy to adopt in a conflict situation.

11.4 Change your attitude towards conflict and treat it as a normal and potentially beneficial part of relationships.

11.5 Prevent conflict when appropriate.

11.6 Learn how to manage conflict personally and professionally.

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I AM SO ANGRY WITH MY BOSS I cannot even speak to him. We had always got on well. He is only a few years older than me and we became friends at university. We lived at the same hall of residence and were part of the same friendship group. He graduated a couple of years before me but we remained close. He said I would fit right in at the central Sydney investment bank where he worked and that he would help me get a job there when I graduated. I was delighted when the bank employed me. For the first few years he was always there for me. I was placed in another department but he stayed in touch, informally providing me with information and tips. People knew that we were close, and I have to admit I did not mind being seen to be affiliated with him. He was highly respected at the bank and I felt lucky and proud to be mentored by him. Dont get me wrong. I worked hard and earned my promotions on merit. But it did not hurt to be associated with him and to get useful advice from him. At least not until now.

Last year he was placed in charge of the graduate recruitment program for the bank. He was the senior person in charge, and people in all departments who recruited for the bank, like me, had a dotted line reporting relationship to him for our recruiting results. That is where things began to go wrong.

As soon as he was put in charge, he made me his assistant. I worked closely with him to ensure his strategic recruiting objectives would be implemented. I began to travel extensively with him and with the other recruitment

de, Janasz, Suzanne, et al. Interpersonal Skills in Organisations, McGraw-Hill Education (Australia) Pty Limited, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ackedu/detail.action?docID=5471270. Created from ackedu on 2022-11-09 03:38:08.

officersline people like myself who had been seconded to the function for just one season. It was an honour to be selected. The opportunity to recruit at prestigious universities is only offered to people who are up and comers at the bank. I was proud of his belief that I could contribute to the effort and do a good job. Plus the added visibility could not hurt when it came time for my next bonus and promotion. Or could it?

One night after our presentation at one of the top universities, he and I ended up the only recruitment officers left at the bar from our team of eight. Everyone else had retired for the evening. We were the diehards, left with a group of students who did not seem to want to leave. I noticed Bob, my boss, over in a corner of the bar with one of the students. A female student. Uh-oh. I was worried how this might look and thought I had better saunter over and join in. I got there just in time to hear the student, who sounded like she had already had enough to drink, order a drink the name of which I had not heard since back in my undergraduate days. Bob told the waiter to charge it to his room. He also politely told me to scram. I left, slightly worried about what might be happening but figuring he knew how to handle himself.

To make a very long story short, a few weeks later I found out that Bob had propositioned this student and that she had filed a sexual harassment and discrimination complaint against him and, by association, against me and our entire recruitment team. Apparently the young student claimed that we had sent the wrong signal to the students by staying out so late with them. She says she stayed because she thought we were interested in her as a potential hire and that one of the reasons she did not get invited back (for an interview the next day) was that she refused to sleep with Bob.

Now both Bobs job and mine are at risk. Since he is the senior person in charge of recruitment and the one who made the pass, he is almost certain to lose his job. Since I am his assistant, I am vulnerable too. The rest of the team will probably be reassigned.

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I am so angry I cannot even talk to anyone about this. Not him. Not his boss. Not my fianc. Not Human Resources. It is humiliating, childish and should not be involving me. All my hard work at the bank is about to go down the tube. I am so angry. I thought we were friends. I thought he would look out for me, not get me into trouble. I do not know what to do. I just want this all to go away.

1. What conflicts are inherent in this case?

2. By choosing not to speak to Bobs superiors, what impact does this have on the parties involved? 3. How could the conflict be managed?

4. While the bar scenario might not have been predicted or avoided, in what ways could the boss

subordinate relationship have been improved before it progressed to this point of conflict?

5. What role do personal style and comfort with conflict play in your response (and resolution) to

situations like these?

Speaking without thinking is like shooting without aiming.

Ancient proverb

Conflict with others is assumed to be an inevitable and unavoidable part of human nature. Yet seldom do human beings feel comfortable with conflict. Many prefer to avoid it at all costs. As can be seen from the opening case, avoiding conflict does not make it go away. It bothers people emotionally, whether they confront the source of the conflict or not. Managing conflict is one of the most difficult yet useful skills to acquire. However, it is a skill that does not usually come naturally; it is learnt. In this chapter the nature of conflict and how to manage it is discussed. Common sources of conflict are identified and a model for approaching and

managing conflict is presented. The chapter also includes strategies for dealing with conflict as well as suggestions for preventing it when possible and for being selective about which conflicts to address. Exercises to help you develop and build skills in managing conflict are located at the end of the chapter.

Before continuing, you may like to discuss how the ancient proverb is relevant to the topic of conflict. Is speaking without thinking a major cause of conflict or in your experience are other factors involved?

WHAT IS

CONFLICT?

It is hard not to be aware of conflict between individuals or groups. The media brings a number to our attention, some of which have affected society in Australia and New Zealand deeply. Examples might include the Cronulla riots in 2005, the 2012 Sydney anti-Muslim film protests or, on the corporate level, the conflict between Gina Rinehart and members of her family over a multi-billion dollar family trust. Historically one might think of the nineteenth-century wars between the Maori people and the Crown, essentially represented by new British settlers. In the political context, between 2010 and 2013 the scene was dominated by the conflict between Kevin Rudd and Julia Gillard as they wrestled for power and the leadership of the Labor Party in Australia. Perhaps you can think of other examples.

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Conflict is a defining feature of communication (Croucher 2011, p. 60) and refers to any situation in which there are incompatible goals, cognitions or emotions within or between individuals or groups that lead to opposition or antagonistic interaction. It is the struggle between incompatible and opposing needs, wishes, ideas, interests or people. Conflict is a form of interaction between parties who differ in interests, perceptions, goals, values or approaches to problems. A potential conflict situation arises when an individual begins to feel that another person is interfering with their ability to attain a certain objective. It begins when they believe the other party is interfering or standing in the way of an action they want to take, an idea they want to pursue or a belief they hold. Conflicts may involve individual or group disagreements, struggles, disputes, quarrels or even physical fighting and wars. Because each human being is uniquepossessing a variety of physical, intellectual, emotional, economic and social differencesconflict is inevitable.

Conflicts can move from lower levels of concern to those that have serious implications. Pruitts (2009) paper on escalation provides some useful insights into understanding the levels or phases of conflict. Building on earlier research, he explains how asymmetrical power relationships tend to encourage escalation and symmetrical power relationships tend to encourage de-escalation.

Conflicts occur in public and private life. Family breakdown or divorce is extremely common and in Australia special laws and courts exist to deal with family conflict (Family Court of Australia 2013). Also common in the private sphere are disputes between neighbours; a variety of options is available to address these kinds of disputes including mediation (see Law Institute of Victoria Home Page). Many people opt for mediation rather than going to court. Generally it is less expensive and time consuming, participants are often more satisfied, experience less anxiety and correspondingly more ownership and empowerment (Cahn & Abigail 2007, pp. 252 3; Gutman 2009). Brandon and Robertson (2007, pp. 439) and Cahn and Abigail (2007) have suggested how mediators can assist parties to approach the resolution of conflict. Managers can adopt these practices too when employees bring conflicts to them. These writers have emphasised how mediators have a responsibility to uphold certain rules or expectation in the mediation process. For example, they usually insist that each party takes turns to speak without being interrupted, that no one engages in humiliating or denigrating another, that a focus on the future rather than the past is maintained and that the goal of finding a mutually acceptable solution be firmly in the mind of participants.

Conflict is also a fact of life in organisations. People work in organisations and each person has a set of goals that is likely to be distinct from the goals of others in the organisation. When conflict is not managed well it can negatively influence an organisation in multiple ways. For example, the effects of poor conflict management have

been associated negatively with job satisfaction, reduced motivation, lack of engagement, diminished employee performance and often resignations (Chen et al. 2012, pp. 1512). Value differences, role pressures and role ambiguity are also causes of conflict. Conflicts in organisations may occur between individuals or between employees and employers. An example of conflict that has a management cause is when individuals or departments with different interests are forced to compete for the same limited resource pool (Keil 2000). The resulting tension can, however, be dealt with constructively, in a way that stimulates creativity and positive change. In fact, lack of creative tension sometimes reflects an I dont care attitude that can lead to stagnation in the organisation. Effective managers are not afraid of conflict. They have been trained to deal with conflict and have trained their employees to deal with conflict constructively. They accept that conflicts must be faced and strive to find constructive means to manage them. Effective managers are those who are selective as to which conflicts they choose to pursue. Sometimes the best course of action in a difficult situation is to take the path of least resistanceto be silent.

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Although managerial mistakes do sometimes cause unnecessary and even unhealthy conflict, it is important to discard the traditional notion that conflict is automatically dysfunctional and results in ineffective performance. Conflict management researchers working in a variety of professional contexts, such as nursing (e.g. Brinkert 2010, p. 145), are now calling for further investigations into the potential benefits of conflicts so that they can be managed in ways that capitalise on any positive implications. Conflict is a certainty for any manageror any person, for that matter. The best managers recognise this and learn how to manage conflict in such a way that it has positive and fair outcomes for all involved (Eisenhardt, Kahwajy & Bourgeois 1997). Exercise 11A involves a short case study, an example of a work-based conflict situation that is not overt conflict but which nevertheless can cause stress for workers.

IS CONFLICT NORMAL?

Societys view of conflict and conflict management has changed over the last century. These views can be summarised in three perspectives on managing conflict (Robbins, Millett & Waters-Marsh 2005).

1. Traditional view. This view was predominant in the early twentieth century when it was believed that conflict was always bad and should be avoided at all costs. Proponents of this perspective believed that conflict was a result of poor communication, a lack of openness and trust and the failure of management to respond to employees needs. For conflict to cease, the dysfunctional behaviour needed to be stopped at the source According to Budjac Corvette (2007, p. 36) the traditional view was particularly fostered in the West and common idioms such as If you cant say anything nice, dont say anything at all or Dont pick fights, be nice, reflected the perspective.

2. Human relations view. This was the overriding perspective for the three decades spanning 1940 through to 1970. In this view, conflict was viewed as a natural and inevitable part of human existence and was accepted as a normal part of group interaction and relationships. Sometimes the conflict was functional, other times dysfunctional, but it was always present (see Budjac Corvette 2007).

3. Interactionist view. The contemporary view holds that not only is conflict

inevitable, but maintaining a degree of tension can actually be helpful in keeping a group energised and creative. In this view, conflict is seen as a positive force for change within organisations, groups and relationships. The challenge is finding constructive means for managing conflict while still maintaining some differences that energise a group towards continued discussion and innovation.

WHY IS CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT?

In every organisation, family, relationship and community there are conflicts of ideas, values, thoughts and actions. Conflict is a given. What is not a given is how individuals choose to react to conflict. As the second-century Stoic philosopher and Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius says in his Meditations:

If you are distressed by anything external, the pain is not due to the thing itself, but to your own estimate of it; and this you have the power to revoke at any moment.

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You can successfully face and resolve conflicts if you take a few steps: recognise that conflicts are normal and inevitable (Fleishman 2000), train yourself not to overreact when conflicts arise and have a strategy to use when conflictssome of which are predictabledo arise.

Conflict can be either positive and functional or negative and dysfunctional. Functional conflict supports the goals of the group and improves its performance while dysfunctional conflict hinders group performance (Robbins, Millett & Waters-Marsh 2005). Conflict is constructive when it:

improves the quality of decisions

stimulates creativity and innovation

encourages interest and curiosity among group members

provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change.

The outcomes of conflict depend on how the conflict is managed or resolved. When conflicts are resolved in positive ways, for example, the process can function as a catalyst for needed change, greater creativity or improved working relationships (Budjac Corvette 2007; Cahn & Abigail 2007, p. 978; Eunson 2007). Conflict is viewed as positive when it results in:

Increased involvement. Organisational members have the opportunity to develop

goals, share ideas and voice opinions, gain greater insight into others and situations. Increased cohesion. Members build strong bonds from learning how to resolve differences; if we can survive this, we must have a true relationship embodies this benefit of conflict (Darling & Russ 2000). In some cases conflict initially reduces cohesion that can in turn reduce the likelihood of groupthink occurring. In this case conflict is positive.

Increased innovation and creativity. Members are encouraged to put their ideas on the table (Caudron 1999); this can lead to more discoveries, improvements and creative solutions. Two heads are truly better than one when conflict brings about synergy instead of chaos.

Positive personal growth and change. Individuals learn their strengths and weaknesses; conflicts of ideas challenge individuals to learn and grow by expressing their ideas and thoughts through self-disclosure and sharing important concepts with others.

Clarification of key issues. Through discussion, members reduce ambiguity and focus energy on the real sources of conflict, then work together to target remaining issues that need to be addressed.

Values clarification. Members clarify who they are and what they stand for, understand who the other party is and what their values are, and learn when to sublimate personal interests to the larger needs of the group or organisation.

Dysfunctional conflict hinders the organisations or the persons performance or ability to attain goals or objectives. Such conflict is destructive when it leads to stress and anxiety, inability to take action and loss of esteem or purpose (Personnel Decisions International 1999). Conflict is viewed as negative when it results in:

Unresolved anger. Members leave the interaction believing they have legitimate concerns that have not been addressed appropriately or goals that cannot be achieved; companies can be slowly poisoned by anger and hostility (Barrier 1998).

Personality clashes. Members lack understanding of their style differences and how to work cooperatively and are more tied to their own interests than those of others. Low self-esteem or self-confidence. Members have a diminished sense of self-worth or identity as a result of the conflict. Often this results from impulsive things said or done in the heat of the conflict.

Unclear or opposing views on who is or should be responsible for what. Members have different expectations of each other and their roles; the conflict was unresolved, unproductive or ended too soon, leaving ambiguity in its wake.

Problems of efficiency. Members decide they are unwilling or unable to work together, resulting in redundancies and poor use of existing resources.

Unfinished business. Members are still unclear about the issue or have remaining concerns that will get in the way of being able to move forward.

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The benefits of positive conflict far outweigh the time it takes to manage conflict well. As managers, it is your responsibility to learn how to manage conflict effectively and how to help others manage conflict. This is done by creating a climate and culture at work that support constructive conflictencouraging the clash of ideas (not personalities) and developing processes, training and strategies that help people work through their inevitable differences. This requires a collaborative approach and a commitment to eliminating or at least reducing the occurrence of destructive conflicts.

Clearly unresolved conflict, especially negative conflict, can have detrimental effects in an organisation. Such was the case in Australia in 2005 when the Coalition government introduced extensive industrial relations reform. The major thrust of the changes was the introduction of tougher unfair dismissal laws and stronger encouragement for employers to use Australian Workplace Agreements (AWAs), first introduced in 1996. The changes resulted in significant industrial unrest and in many cases conflict between employers and employees. A University of Sydney professor commented that The new changes will tip the balance of power in favour of employers (Franklin 2005). The university sector was one of the first affected and the resulting conflict lasted many months. Exercise 11B presents a number of scenarios depicting negative conflict situations. In a training course context, or with a friend or colleague, you can practise conflict resolution strategies that focus on your communications styles. You should also draw on the assertiveness and listening skills discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.

SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Different groups, business units, functions, operating companies or locations within one organisation will each have a set of expectations and operating principles that differs from the others. Each specific entity within an organisation may have a unique customer set, employee profile, product orientation, management style, business niche, set of tasks and procedures, and culture or work environment. Business units in the same organisation can differ significantly in their primary roles, tasks, workloads, scheduling of holidays, pay or promotion policies, chain of command and work flow processes. According to authors such as Jain, Triandis and Weick (2010) and Kurtzberg and Mueller (2005, p. 337), ambiguity about roles, tasks or workload can give rise to conflicts within or between groups. For example, the Australian retail giant, Coles Myer, operates hundreds of stores in Australia and New Zealand. It is Australias largest non-government employer and operates businesses such as supermarkets, service stations, tyre and auto services, liquor stores, the stationery outlet Officeworks and department stores including Target and Myer. In such an organisation there are clearly very different entities separate units whose primary businesses differ from each other. While each unit is essentially a different entity, employees in them may at some level work together and share expertise as

well as information. However, a variety of situational or organisational factors would be likely to lead to conflict (Morgan & Schneider 2000), particularly where a high level of change is occurring (Cook, Hunsaker & Coffey 1999). Some of the main causes of conflict are addressed in greater detail below.

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Limited resources

Despite clear differences between units within an organisation, one commonality remains. In general, all are ultimately competing for the same resource pool. This pool is usually limited, causing the various units within an organisation to compete against each other for finite resources. No matter how prosperous an organisation might appear from its facilities, salary levels or private jets and limousines, few if any organisations operate with unlimited resources. This usually results in competition among business units for the restricted resources available through the parent organisation. Individuals and groups in organisations compete for what they consider to be their fair share of resources such as money, time, senior management attention, technology, supplies, equipment and human talent. In large organisations such as Coles Myer there is an internal labour market, and the different entities potentially compete with each other for talented staff. Conflict is almost inevitable in these circumstances.

Differences in goals/objectives

Differences in personal and/or professional goals and objectives are a common source of conflict within organisations (Cook, Hunsaker & Coffey 1999). If you are working on a project with someone whose objective is different from yours, tension or conflict is likely to occur. An illustration might be when a department that deals with customers directly, working in sales, makes promises to customers that another department may be expected to deliver on but finds difficult to implement (Speakman & Ryals 2010, p. 188).

Perhaps one team member wants to bludge or do as little work as possible towards the teams expected output or deliverable. If this person is on a team of individuals who are committed to a high-quality output, there will be considerable differences between them on items such as approach to the work, ways to get the work done and standards of work quality and quantity. Such tension can be from intra-group conflict, differences between members of one group, as in the above example, or from inter-group conflict, arising from differences between competing subgroups of an organisation (McShane & Travaglione 2005). For example, conflicts can arise between support staff and sales in an organisation (Shani et al. 2009, p. 254). The marketing department, in such a situation, might have a different goal from the finance department. The marketing manager might push to increase spending on advertising and promotion in order to improve sales, while the finance manager pushes for increased cost- cutting measures.

Miscommunication

Very frequently, personal and professional conflicts arise due to poor communication. Seldom is miscommunication intentional. More often than not it is the result of not taking time to clarify understanding of something otherwise obscured by gender, cultural differences or errors in semantics. Often people say one thing and mean another. Or in their haste they speak quickly and cryptically in the hope that others know what they want. They may perhaps speak clearly but the non-verbal communication contradicts the verbal message. Or, in the case of email communication, sometimes conflict arises because email does not permit you to read the other persons non-verbal cues or completely understand the intended meaning in the written words, as you might in telephone or face-to-face communication (Friedman & Currall 2003). These communication issues are further compounded by the jargon shared by and understood within specific groups of people, such as engineers or computer programmers. The processes and principles of communication may also differ between work groups. One group might have a division newsletter through which employees are kept informed of important organisational changes, while another group might rely on word of mouth to spread key bits of information. This results in each group having a very different understanding of what is going on in the organisation. Interaction between these groups could lead to numerous miscommunications, each one a potential source of conflict.

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Differing attitudes, values and perceptions

Many conflicts are the result of differences in attitudes, values and perceptions. Conflict is therefore concerned with both tangible and intangible factors that include emotions (see Cahn & Abigail 2007, p. 37; Cook, Hunsaker & Coffey 1999; Shani et al. 2009, p. 254). Sometimes, without even realising it, individuals bring feelings or concerns into an interaction that predisposes them to react in a certain way. For example, if you are afraid of dogs and encounter a neighbour with a dog while out walking one morning, you may react with fear or even hostility. Upon reflection, you realise this fear is due to a fear of dogs you have had since you were a child. But the neighbour, without knowing this background, might misinterpret your strong reaction and conclude you dislike the neighbour rather than fear the dog. Without a chance to communicatefor the neighbour to share their perception with you and for you to explain the background behind your reactionit is likely that you will each emerge from the interaction with a vastly different understanding of what just occurred, and with different, possibly negative, opinions of each other.

Conflicting values are a common and difficult-to-resolve source of conflict between people. Differences in gender, race, ethnicity, religious beliefs (Shani et al. 2009; Ting-Toomey & Takai 2006, p. 691), attitudes towards diverse others, clashes in family values or work ethic might result in interpersonal differences that surface in the work environment. A young consultant, for example, who leaves the office mid-afternoon each Friday is viewed by her

colleagues as not doing her fair share of work, especially when they are left to work late to finish a task that she should have helped them with. The fact is she is an Orthodox Jew. Her manager knows this but her colleagues do not. In this case it would be preferable for her colleagues to be aware of her beliefs. This way the team could make accommodations for her early departure on Fridays, and she could perhaps offer to work late on Thursdays.

Fear, confusion, anxiety and hostility are common attitudes and perceptions and a frequent source of conflict between individuals and groups, and these feelings are often magnified when the individuals are demographically different. Chapter 5, which dealt with issues of managing diversity, provided some examples of conflict arising out of cultural misunderstanding. Furthermore, these attitudes towards and perceptions about others can be long lasting and self- fulfilling. When such feelings are allowed to develop, conflict is bound to occur. Finally, conflict can arise when deep-seated and widely held values such as safety, freedom or retaining a positive self-image are perceived to be under threat (Guerrero & Valley 2006, p. 72).

Style differences

Another common source of conflict is differences in personal style or personality. An obvious example of this is the predictable tension between two flatmates who are on different body clocks. The early riser who gets up at dawn and the night owl who sleeps until noon are almost certain to come into conflict with each other. Conflicts are likely to occur between the slob and the neat freak. The manager who is task-oriented and the employee who is a perpetual socialiser will probably encounter much tension and conflict in their boss subordinate relationship. In some instances differences may be attributed to assumed or real gender differences. Women and men are reported to use different conflict resolution styles. Some evidence suggests that women rely more on collaboration and maintaining relationships and men tend to be more competitive (OHare 1997). While gender differences certainly exist, it must be remembered that there are more similarities than differences (Connell 1995).

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Commonly held stereotypes about women and men, such as those discussed in Chapter 5, may cause some to make gender-based attributions about the sources of conflict. However, such attributions are not necessarily correct. In her recent research on senior management teams, Karin Klenke postulates that gender does not account for differences in team decision making among senior female and male executives. She proposes that four constructsnamely power, political savvy, conflict management and trustexplain an individuals effectiveness in making decisions involving conflict (Klenke 2003). Personality conflicts can result in unproductive behaviours at work including gossip, jealousy, insults, taking sides or playing favourites, slowing work speed, forming cliques and even absenteeism and turnover.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Knowing what causes conflicts is half the battle. Knowing what to do when conflicts arise, as they inevitably do, comprises the other half. Those who are effective at conflict management recognise that sources of conflict, such as limited resources, will probably always be present and seek ways to live with it, minimise its effect and manage it. When deciding on a strategy for dealing with a specific conflict, two factors need to be kept in mind: your goals, or what you hope to accomplish through the interaction, and the importance to you of the relationship you have with the other person (Johnson 1997).

The first consideration when selecting a strategy is assessing your goals: what personal or organisational goals are to be accomplished and how important is it to achieve those exact goals? Remember that conflicts often exist because of opposing goals. The nature and importance to you of a particular set of goals will determine which strategy is most appropriate for the situation. The second consideration when choosing a conflict resolution strategy is the depth, quality and duration of the relationship.

Research on conflict management suggests five possible strategies based on the intersection between relationship and goal importance (Thomas 1976). Figure 11.1 helps illustrate how each conflict management strategy maps with the assessed importance of the goal and the relationship. Each option has advantages and disadvantages. The appropriate option depends on your preferences and on the context of the specific situation. Selecting a strategy is likely to be influenced by your predispositions to conflict so it is important to understand your own responses to conflict (Cahn & Abigail 2007) as personal inclinations towards a particular strategy may lead to making some inappropriate choices.

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How to select a strategy

Before selecting a strategy, work through answers to the following questions:

Is this relationship long term or passing?

Is the relationship substantive (goes beyond business issues to more personal matters) or narrow? Is the relationship more important to me than the matter under discussion?

How important is it to maintain a working or friendly relationship with those with whom I am in conflict?

What possible ramifications will surface after the dust settles?

How you answer these questions will help determine the conflict strategy you ultimately select.

FIGURE 11.1 Conflict-handling strategies

Avoiding. In an avoidance or withdrawing strategy an individual chooses not to deal with the issues or the people involved and instead retreats from the situation, hoping it will go away or resolve itself. The avoider is unlikely to take sides and tends to choose not to hear certain comments or changes the subject or tells the disputant something like, I am looking into it, but in fact hopes the matter will simply be forgotten (Hynes 2008, pp. 21920). Some research suggests that avoiders tend to have low self-esteem and are more likely to have come from a family environment where they were exposed to a significant person who constantly gave, received little and yet always put on a happy face (Berko 2010, p. 255). This strategy is suitable for situations in which the issues are trivial, emotions are high, when concerns are unlikely to be satisfied or when others could resolve the conflict more effectively. As Berko (2010) has indicated, angry, stressed people do not tend to manage conflict well so it is probably advisable for them to direct their negative emotional energy into undertaking some other pursuit like jogging or gardening and promising to come back to it later. Avoiding is risky if the matter under discussion requires your attention. It may resurface if not dealt with effectively. What is worse, conflicts that are set aside or ignored can fester due to lack of communication and clarification, making it more difficultand necessaryto address at a later time. If the conflict is one that must be addressed, save time and emotional energy by speaking up soon after the conflict is recognised. Take, for example, a team with a social loaferthat is, a team member who does not contribute his or her fair share of work. This is a common scenario not only in the workplace but also in student project teams at university. Avoiding a confrontation with the offender means that the rest of the team members have to do the work of the person not contributing. Avoidance can lead to a loselose scenario; goals may not be addressed or achieved and the relationship may not be able to progress beyond its current state. The hard-working team members have to do the work of the social loaferhowever, the offender also loses in that they end up being disliked and resented and also do not have an opportunity to learn and grow as a result of the participation.

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Some work has explored how culture can influence the choice of avoidance as a

conflict strategy. For example, Shani et al. (2009) suggest that individuals from collectivist cultures may be more likely to adopt avoidance styles as a way of maintaining harmony with others. However, trust could well play an important role in the adoption of avoidance strategies in these contexts. The work of Parayitam, Olson and Bao (2010, p. 109) undertaken in China, sampling executive teams, found that high levels of trust between and among teams was less likely to result in the adoption of avoidance strategies for managing conflict. These studies, and others like them that have explored business practices in China as global ties become stronger, should however, according to Lin (2010), be approached with some caution since they tend to rely on assumptions about Confucianism and collectivism that may not prove entirely reliable.

Accommodating (smoothing). The accommodator tries to make everyone happy and may give in to others consistently even when it is not in his or her best interests (Hynes 2008, p. 220). Using an accommodation strategy to resolve a conflict tends to occur when maintaining a relationship with another person is thought to be more important than accomplishing a specific goal through the interaction. This strategy is appropriate when the issue is not that important or when harmony is of greater importance than winning on the issue. For example, in a work team there may be a dominant person who always insists that their way is the best way. Consequently not everyones ideas are being used and so potentially the job is not as good as it could be. Often it may be appropriate to give in to a dominant persons wishes if both choices are equally suitable. It saves time and emotional energy, and it can be used in a later conflict negotiation (I did what you wanted; now I want you to do ... for me). However, always accommodating might signal the sacrifice of some important goals for the sake of the relationship. You might wonder why others never seem to do the same for you. Indeed, constant accommodating can lead to exploitation (Berko 2010, p. 257). Sometimes you do this because you want to be nice and have others like you. However, over-reliance on accommodating in conflict situations can be harmful to any relationship in the long term and likely to build up resentment over unmet needs.

Compromising. When you compromise or split the difference in a conflict you agree to give up part of your goal and part of the relationship in order to reach an agreement. Compromising is some way between forcing and accommodating where some gains can be achieved on both sides but neither side really believes that winning is worth the cost (Hynes 2008). This strategy is effective for achieving temporary solutions, when both parties are at a comparable level, when there are time pressures or as a back-up when collaboration or competing are neither possible nor successful. This strategy is the equivalent of win some, lose some. In other words, you consciously agree to accept that sometimes in the relationship you will get your way and other times you will not. This is possible in a long-term relationship where there is time for give-and-take exchange. However, many people and groups jump to this strategy too

quickly without pursuing synergy or collaboration. Perhaps it is our feelings about risk: I am better off getting half of what I want than risking it and getting nothing. Whether this is true or appropriate depends on the situation.

Competing (forcing). In a competing strategy you work to achieve your goals at all costs, even if it means sacrificing the relationship. This is an I win, you lose strategy. Believed to be the most frequently adopted strategy by managers in the United States, a forcing strategy can communicate that production, goals and costs are of greater value than the needs or acceptance of others (Hynes 2008). Forcing may be appropriate when you have severe time restrictions, are in a crisis situation, need to issue an unpopular decision or have to take an action that is vital to an organisations welfare. Some salespeople are guilty of forcing sales. They care about the commission they earn if they sell you a cartodayand use techniques such as this is the last one [or day]; if you leave now, the deal expires that make buyers feel pressured into the sale. More successful salespeople realise that future sales from this person and others in their network are likely if agreements are reached collaboratively rather than through a forcing approach. Of course, forcing children out on a specific path when the fire alarm rings is not only appropriate but also safer than discussing or arguing over other options. On the other hand, in disputes between management and employees competing is often the stance taken by one or both parties; each seeks to win and neither is prepared to give in, making resolution extremely difficult. In Australia currently, such disputes may eventually go to the Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC) for conciliation or arbitration. Collaborating (integrating). The ultimate winwin strategy; it involves energy, commitment and excellent skills in communication, problem solving and negotiation. When parties collaborate, they pursue a mutually acceptable position, perhaps because they believe cooperation will be more rewarding than competition, or because they trust the other party or have faith that any status or power differences that might otherwise be problematic can be overcome (Hynes 2008). Recent work conducted in China has also revealed that where collaboration and compromising conflict management techniques are adopted, employees can experience greater job satisfaction and become more innovative (Chen et al. 2012, p. 151). Collaboration is appropriate when there is plenty of time, when everyone wants a solution that satisfies all parties objectives and maintains the relationship between those involved. It is also critical when the conflicting parties are responsible for implementing the solution. If you feel that a solution was only partly effective or was forced on you, you will be less likely to put your heart and soul into its implementation. Coming to a consensus or finding an integrative solution takes considerable problem-solving effort and time. In collaboration, both parties do not necessarily agree but both feel comfortable enough to express their disagreement and opinions and can work towards an optimal solution (Caudron 1998).

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Although collaborating or the winwin option appears to be the ideal strategy, it is not appropriate in all cases. Each of the strategies has strong and weak points. No one solution is best suited for all situations. Figure 11.2 details the gains and losses associated with each style. The best managers are those who can move fluidly from one style to the next depending on the situation and circumstances. Managers will find themselves using all these strategies. Whether the management of a conflict proves to be functional or dysfunctional depends on the individual personalities involved, the nature of the conflict, the relationships between the parties and previous experiences of conflicts (Speakman & Ryals 2010). Some recent research findings also suggest that a persons conflict strategy may be related to their religious beliefs. Croucher (2011), for example, found that in Europe, Muslims may prefer more compromising and obliging styles while Christians tend to adopt more dominating strategies. The important thing to remember is that every person has a style with which they are naturally most comfortable; however, it is important to consider the appropriateness of this style in any given situation. You can determine your conflict resolution mode by completing the self-assessment questionnaire in Exercise 11C. Be aware of your natural tendency and develop proficiency in using other, less comfortable styles, depending on what a situation dictates.

FIGURE 11.2 Gains and losses associated with conflict styles

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GAINS

Competition Avoidance Accommodation Compromise Collaboration

Chance to w in everything Exciting gamesmanship Exercise ow n sense of pow er

No energy or time expenditure

Conserve for fights that are more important

The needs of neither party are met

Little fuss, no feathers ruffled Others may view you as supportive

Energy free for other pursuits

No one returns home empty- handed

Keeps the peace

May or may not encourage creativity

Both sides w in Better chance for long-term solutions Creativity in proble solving

Maintains relationships

New understanding of situation Improves quality of solution and commitment

LOSSES

Chance to lose everything Alienates others

Discourages others from w orking w ith you

Potentially larger scale conflicts in the future (or more avoidance of conflict)

Less stimulation

Less creative problem solving

Little understanding of others needs

Incomplete comprehension of w ork environment

Can damage the relationship if the issue must be resolved

Low ered self-assertion and possible self-esteem

Loss of pow er

Absence of your unique contribution to the situation Others dependent on you may not feel you go to bat for them

Since neither side is totally satisfied, conflicts are likely to recur later

Neither side realises self- determination fully

Time consuming in the short run

Source: Adapted from Ronald Fry, Jared Florian & Jacquie McLemore, Department of Organizational Behavior, Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 1984.

TIPS FOR

MANAGING CONFLICT

Control your temper and emotional response. Demonstrate your respect for the other partys feelings. Validate that the conflict is real to them no matter how trivial it may seem to you (Pollock 1999). Embracing conflict builds honest relationships. By validating both parties feelings about a situation you can then move into a problem-solving mode.

Understand the issues. Do not react impulsively when faced with a conflict situation. Take the time needed to fully assess the scope of the situation: the key players, the source of the conflict, the issues involved, the goals and the dynamics of the relationship(s) involved (Rigsbee 2000). Accept the faults of the parties involved and be willing to admit to them. Focus on changing behaviours, not people. Then select a conflict strategy from the above choices and apply it to the situation as appropriate.

Pick your battles. Not all conflicts are manageable. Get all the facts before making any judgments. Choose the time and place carefully. A good manager will carefully choose the issues worth handling and select an appropriate strategy for handling them. In the same way small children bring their conflicts to adults to solve, employees frequently do the same with their managers. Sometimes, in the interests of developing the skills of and relationships between employees who report to you, it is wise to determine whether it is better to ignore a particular conflict so the individuals responsible for the conflict can address it or, more importantly, encourage employees to work on conflict resolution.

Search for a common goal or ground. Know your options, and select your best option. Attempt to work for winwin solutions that will be acceptable to both parties (Pearse 2000). Do this by asking open- ended questions and demonstrating you have heard and understood others goals or objectives. When this is not possible or time is short, try to accommodate as many of the others interests as possible and then make the decision that is ultimately the most fair and helpful for the organisation. Sometimes a compromise solution will have to suffice.

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CONFLICT PREVENTION TECHNIQUES

While some conflict can be healthy and constructive, conflict also has negative side-effects. Unresolved and continuous conflict can lower productivity and morale and lead to high turnover. It makes sense to eliminate possible sources of friction before they even become evident.

By effectively managing conflict, managers can gain the benefit of conflict without the costs (Amason 1996). Some techniques that can be used to minimise or deflect conflict follow.

Team-building

As organisations have become flatter and less hierarchical, individuals are working in teams dedicated to specific project goals. Providing training and coaching on team-building skills can reduce the amount of conflict that occurs in the team setting. These skills include:

setting clear objectives

developing shared goals

establishing team norms

understanding the stages through which teams progress clarifying expectations

planning projects and meeting deadlines.

There are various types of team-building courses and various companies offering team- building, teamwork and leadership development workshops. Many Australian companies, especially the larger ones such as Telstra Australia, invest in such courses. Most are provided in-house but some more intrepid organisations offer outdoor adventure team-building training.

Diversity awareness and training

As organisations become more diverse, individuals find themselves working more and more with people who vary in terms of background, physical ability, culture, ethnicity, gender, religious beliefs, education, economic status, sexual orientation, political views, values, goals, ideas and knowledge base (Sedam 1999). Diversity training is now offered by many large companies as a way of ensuring that employees understand the importance of differences among individuals and how to manage them effectively (Caudron 1998). This training often includes components such as:

self-awareness of personal prejudices and stereotypes

individual differences and how they develop

valuing differences

maximising each persons strengths and capabilities to the advantage of the organisation

understanding and reducing discrimination

legal guidelines for dealing with issues such as sexual harassment cross-training and cross-functional team training.

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Diversity training is also becoming more common. Many Australian companies are globalising and offer cultural awareness programs to prepare staff for international assignments. Locally too there is a recognition that within the Australian population there is a diverse customer base and, of course, that staff come from diverse backgrounds. Centrelink is one organisation that takes diversity issues seriously and actively works to prevent conflict arising out of misunderstandings. The company employs Multicultural Service Officers and employees who speak a wide variety of languages other than English.

Open communication

Companies are beginning to adopt more informal and personalised ways of connecting with their employees. By exchanging information freely and keeping people informed, companies find they are able to reduce some of the conflicts that arise from lack of information. Companies with open communication systems encourage:

regular staff meetings

internal newsletters

employee attitude surveys

360-degree feedback (programs in which employees and managers receive performance feedback from subordinates, peers and superiors).

Conflict management training

Many companies have discovered the benefits of providing their employees with training in dealing effectively with conflict. These programs teach participants to:

handle conflict constructively

respect the legitimacy of others points of view, feelings and perceptions

listen actively

communicate assertively

problem-solve collaboratively

support conflict constructively

help others avert unnecessary strife

use communication skills to influence the way in which conflict is handled (Ruin 1997)

anticipate and act accordingly

be aware of potential problems and deal with them while they are still minor (Pollock 1999).

Most of the larger Australian corporations have such training courses. At the least, conflict management modules are included in in-house supervision and management training courses.

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Resource allocation

As long as resources need to be shared among various departments within an organisation, conflict will be a part of organisational life. One technique effective managers use to reduce the possible effects of negative conflict is to reduce competition for resources. If internal resources can be increased or re-allocated, the number of winlose situations is likely to drop. Of concern here is the process by which resources are allocated. The more secretive this process, the greater the likelihood that organisational members will perceive inequity and take steps to reduce it. To the degree possible, organisations encourage collaboration across

departments and unitsand involve key players in resource-allocation decision processes to increase the fairness and effectiveness of these decisions.

The techniques just described focus primarily on what managers can do in their organisations to reduce sources and consequences of conflict. Following are a few additional techniques that individuals can use when interacting with others in a personal or professional setting. When using any techniques it is important to first consider the following:

know your underlying conflict-handling style

anger and aggression are not the same thing understand that anger is a natural emotion

recognise which events and behaviours trigger anger remember you are responsible for your own feelings deal with issues when they arisedont stew express anger assertively.

Communication

Assertiveness skills are particularly useful in conflict management. Two communication techniques helpful for avoiding conflicts are using I language and paying attention to non- verbal cues. Saying things like You just dont understand or Your idea will never work puts others on the defensive. They feel attacked and strike back, causing conflict to escalate. Taking responsibility for your communicationIm not sure Ive clearly stated my objection, let me clarify what I mean ... or I have a concern about the marketing part of this plan. Can we discuss this?means conflicts are less likely to occur.

On the other hand, there are times you could add to conflict by over-communicating; that is, by getting involved with too much detail. You may fan the flames by paying too much attention to issues that would be better ignored and dealt with via the reinforcement technique of extinction, rather than providing no reinforcement at all by simply ignoring the event. Much as you might prefer it to be the case, things do not always get better by communicating too openly or insisting that your opinion is the right one that should be accepted. Sometimes it is best simply to express your opinion, agree to disagree and table the matter.

Managing others expectations

Two techniques worth mentioning are setting limits and communicating consequences. Imagine your boss provides you with yet another project. You can do it but not today, or this week for that matterat least not with everything else on your plate. Your boss asks you to work late today to work on it. You work in the northern suburbs of Melbourne and live on the other side of the city. Finishing the project today means a long trip home at night-time and you feel uncomfortable about this as there is limited public transport after 9 pm. Managers cannot read minds. If you are not able to complete the project when and how it is expected, or are not able

to work back late, let your boss know now instead of not getting the work done on time or staying back late. Setting limitsIm happy to do this project, but I need to let you know that the other project you wanted me to do will have to be placed on holdcan help manage your bosss expectations and avoid a future conflict. Similar to setting limits, sometimes you need to communicate consequences. Returning to the scenario of the team member who is not pulling their weight, it is important to realise that saying nothing is akin to approving this behaviour. If you have tried reasoning, clarifying the issue and asserting the teams needs but nothing has changed, it may be time to use consequences. Weve tried several times to get you to do what weve asked. If your part of the project is not up to the standards weve agreed to by Friday, were going to ask the supervisor to have you taken off the team.

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Focusing on others first

Often when you disagree with another person, you rush to explain why your ideas are superior. Like you language, this tendency can motivate others to defend themselves. One effective technique for preventing conflict involves anticipating anothers disagreement or objection and explaining how your proposal takes this issue into account. I know youre concerned about x, and I have one suggestion about how this can be overcome. Even helpful advice can be taken the wrong way, implying that the listener is performing ineffectively. When you are looking to change or improve organisational processes, consider first how others might benefit from the change. Since most people dislike change, you can increase their willingness to listen to your idea if they feel doing so can benefit them and their organisation. You can avoid conflicts by appealing to anothers self-interest. You could say something like, I know that the current reimbursement process works. However, if you can reduce the number of approval signatures needed, you will save time and show us that you trust us to act appropriately. Exercises 11D and 11E enable you to draw on the learning from this chapter to assess how you have dealt with conflict in the past and how you can use the knowledge and skills learned to more effectively manage conflict in the future.

SUMMARY

Conflict is inevitable. People are unique and have different interests, goals, perspectives, values and needs. For this reason, conflict can and does occur. Not all conflict is dysfunctional; some conflict can actually increase innovation, creativity and the bond between conflicting parties. Practising conflict prevention techniques can help you eliminate or defuse conflicts before they surface. By knowing likely sources of conflict and appropriate strategies for dealing with different types of conflict, you can manage your response to conflict and improve your interactions with others.

KEY TERMS

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accommodating avoiding collaborating competing compromising conflict

human relations view (of conflict) interactionist view (of conflict) inter-group conflict

intra-group conflict

negative (conflict)

positive (conflict) traditional view (of conflict)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Consider some difficult conflict situations in which you have been involved. Recall and discuss what happened.

1. How did you deal with the conflicts? Consider the skills you used.

2. If you were faced with a similar situation now would you handle it differently?

In what way?

3. Consider once again the study group conflict mentioned in Discussion Question

1. The negotiation with the dominant group member has not resulted in agreement, instead it has escalated into an unpleasant conflict and polarised group members. What now? Will conflict management techniques help? Which ones? How will you use them?

4. Consider the impact of each of the ThomasKilmann strategies: accommodating, avoiding, competing, compromising and collaboration (see Exercise 11C).

Exercise 11A

CONFLICT CASE STUDY

My boss and I are having some interpersonal problems. There are several things that he does that I find really annoying. To start with he is not considerate of my employees or me. I often find myself thinking that I would be reluctant to do the things he does around me that annoy me. Yet he is my boss so what can I do? He comes in late to the office, after my co-workers and I have been working for a while and have our day planned. Inevitably he will

interrupt and present us with a whole new set of priorities for the day. To be fair; he does stay late (we have flexitime in our office) and he has a good reason to be latehe has child-care responsibilities to fulfil on school mornings. But his habit of coming in and interrupting the schedule for our day is really off-putting. By the time I have listened to his concerns, re-prioritised my and my staffs work and focused on the tasks at hand, it is almost lunchtime and I feel I have wasted almost half a day trying to respond to his concerns. I am afraid to confront himhe is a good guy and it would only put him on the defensive, and would not really change anything. But I am also tired of not feeling productive. I just wish he would be a little more sensitive to our situation and be better organised and more aware of our time constraints. Is that asking too much?

Questions

1. What is your immediate reaction to the scenario? How would you feel if you were the person writing about this situation?

2. How could this situation have been prevented?

3. What approaches to resolving this conflict are appropriate?

4. What are some things that, if done, would make this approach successful?

5. What are some things to avoid when attempting to resolve this conflict? Why?

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Exercise 11B

CONFLICT ROLE-PLAYS

In small groups, role-play one or more of the following scenarios. Perform them in the small group or in front of the large group or class. For each scenario acted out, analyse and discuss the following:

What strategies were used? What attitudes were depicted? What worked and why?

What did not and why?

Scenarios

1. One of your co-workers is accepting gifts from a supplier; this is forbidden by your companys policy. 2. Two of your employees are unable to agree on anything in staff meetings.

3. You think one of your employees is harassing another employee sexually.

4. You think a fellow worker is cheating with their sales figures.

5. You and your flatmate disagree over how clean to keep the flat.

Exercise 11C

INSTRUMENT

THOMASKILMANN CONFLICT MODE

Consider situations in which you find your wishes differing from those of another person. How do you usually respond to such situations?

In the questionnaire below are 30 pairs of statements describing behavioural responses to situations. For each pair please circle the A or B statement that is more characteristic of your own behaviour: In many cases neither A

nor the B statement may be very typical of your behaviour, but please select the response that you would be more likely to use.

Questionnaire

1. a. There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem.

b. Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress those things upon which we both agree.

2. a. I try to find a compromise solution.

b. I attempt to deal with all of their and my concerns.

3. a. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

b. I might try and soothe the others feelings and preserve our relationship.

4. a. I try to find a compromise solution.

b. I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for the wishes of the other person.

5. a. I constantly seek the others help in working out a solution. 276

b. I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions. 6. a. I try to avoid creating unpleasantness for myself.

b. I try to win my position.

7. a. I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over.

b. I give up some points in exchange for others. 8. a. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

b. I attempt to get all my concerns and issues immediately out in the open. 9. a. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.

b. I make some effort to get my way. 10. a. I am firm in pursuing my goals.

b. I try to find a compromise solution.

11. a. I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.

b. I might try to soothe the others feelings and preserve our relationship. 12. a. I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy.

b. I will let the other have some of their positions if they let me have some of mine. 13. a. I propose a middle ground.

b. I press to get my points made.

14. a. I tell the other my ideas and ask them for theirs.

b. I try to show the other the logic and benefits of my position.

15. a. I might try to soothe the others feelings and preserve our relationship.

b. I try to do what is necessary to avoid tensions. 16. a. I try not to hurt the others feelings.

b. I try to convince the other person of the merits of my position. 17. a. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

b. I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions.

18. a. If it makes the other person happy, I might let them maintain their views.

b. I will let the other have some of his/her positions if they let me have some of mine. 19. a. I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.

b. I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over.

20. a. I attempt to immediately work through our differences.

b. I try to find a fair combination of gains and losses for both of us.

21. a. In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other persons wishes. b. I always lean towards a direct discussion of the problem.

22. a. I try to find a position that is intermediate between the others and mine. b. I assert my wishes.

23. a. I am very often concerned with satisfying all our wishes.

b. There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem.

24. a. If the others position seems very important to them, I would try to meet their wishes.

b. I try to get them to settle for compromise.

25. a. I try to show the other the logic and benefits of my position.

b. In approaching negotiations I try to be considerate of the other persons wishes. 26. a. I propose a middle ground.

b. I am nearly always concerned with satisfying all our wishes.

27. a. I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy.

b. If it makes the other person happy, I might let them maintain their views. 28. a. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals.

b. I usually seek the others help in working out a solution. 29. a. I propose a middle ground.

b. I feel that the differences are not always worth worrying about. 30. a. I try not to hurt the others feelings.

b. I always share the problem with the other person so that we can work it out.

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Scoring the questionnaire

Circle the letters below that you circled on each item of the questionnaire.

No.

1. A B 2. B A 3.A B 4. A B 5. A B 6. B A 7. B A 8.A B 9. B A

10.A B 11. A B 12. B A 13.B A 14.B A 15. B A 16.B A 17.A B 18. B A 19. A B 20. A B 21. B A 22.B A 23. A B 24. B A 25.A B 26. B A

Competing (forcing) Collaborating (problem solving) Compromising (sharing) Avoiding (w ithdraw al) Accommodating (smoothing)

27. A B

28.A B

29. A B

30. B A

Total number of items circled in each column:

____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ Competing Collaborating Compromising Avoiding Accommodating

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Exercise 11D

CONFLICT ASSESSMENT

1. Briefly describe one conflict situation in which you found yourself recently (in the past couple of years). What were the reasons for and outcomes of this conflict?

________________________________________________________

2. Using the five conflict styles discussed in this chapter; describe the style you used in resolving the conflict you have just described, pointing to specific behaviours and communication patterns that are evidence of this style. In what ways was this style effective and/or ineffective in this situation?

________________________________________________________

3. What style did the person with whom you were in conflict use? Evidence? In what ways were they effective and/or ineffective in this situation?

________________________________________________________

4. If you could replay this scenario, what things would you do the same and why; what things would you have done differently and why?

________________________________________________________

5. What conflict style are you most comfortable using? Why? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

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Exercise 11E

CHALLENGE

HUMPTY DUMPTYS SPACESHIP

In teams of three to six, create a spaceship for Humpty Dumpty (an egg) that can withstand the gravitational forces that occur during a one-metre drop. The spaceship that withstands the highest drop will be the winner; if there is a tie, the winner will be the spaceship fabricated out of the greatest number of materials. Each spaceship must be fabricated out of at least three materials. Each team has possession of only one material, so you will need to negotiate with other teams to acquire new materials.

Your team will have 10 minutes to plan your spaceship design. Decide what material your spaceship will be made from and determine which teams you will need to negotiate with for materials.

Next, your team will have 20 minutes to negotiate material and construct the spaceship. Negotiate as effectively as you possibly can; use any strategies or tactics.

Questions

1. Before approaching your opponents, how did you prepare for the negotiation process?

2. Did you use the same conflict-handling styles for all opponents that you negotiated with? Explain.

3. In this situation, which conflict-handling styles were most successful? Why?

4. Did every negotiation work out exactly as you planned and hoped? Why or why not?

5. What factors helped you in the negotiation process? What could you have done differently to make your

negotiations more successful?

6. In performing this exercise, what lessons did you learn about negotiation? How does this exercise relate

to negotiations in the real world?

Source: Adapted from Kim Eddleston, doctoral student, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. This exercise was presented at the 2000 Eastern Academy of Management/Experiential Learning Association Conference.

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Exercise 11F

REFLECTION/ACTION PLAN

This chapter focused on conflict managementwhat it is, why it is important and how to improve your skills in this area. Complete the worksheet below once you have finished all reading and experiential activities for this chapter.

1. The one or two areas in which I am strongest are:

________________________________________________________

2. The area in which I most need improvement is: ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

3. If I did only one thing to improve in this area, it would be to:

________________________________________________________

4. Making this change would probably result in: ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

5. If I did not change or improve in this area, it would probably affect my personal and professional life in the following ways:

________________________________________________________

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