Faculty of Health SciencesSchool of Nursing & Midwifery
Faculty of Health SciencesSchool of Nursing & Midwifery
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Student ID 2081650
FAN miny0001
First name Stanislav
Family name Minyaev
Phone number 0422965716
Topic code NURS9218
Topic name Approaches to Research Designs
Tutorial lecturer Dr. Ann Harrington, Dr. Ingrid Belan
Assignment number and title Research Proposal
Word count 5900
Due date 02/04/2013 by 4pm
Date of submission 02/04/2013 by 4pm
Is this a resubmission? No
NURS9217 Approaches to Research Designs
Flinders University
School of Nursing and Midwifery
Research Proposal
Stanislav Minyaev
Title of Research Question
Developing the understanding of why undergraduate nursing students withdraw from the University.
Supervisors:
Topic Coordinator:
Table of Contents
Preface . 4
Introduction ............ 4
Background 4
Authors interest in the problem .. 5
Significance of the research .. 6
Review of the Literature ............ 6
Problem Statement and Research Question ............ 8
The Research Approach 9
Qualitative research .. 9
Consideration of Methodological Approach ... 9
Selected Research Methodology 10
The Hermeneutic Phenomenology of Max van Manen as the research
methodology for the study 12
The Descriptive Phenomenology of E. Husserl in conjunction with the
ideas of van Manen . 12
The Interpretive Phenomenology of M. Heidegger in conjunction
with the ideas of van Manen .. 14
Philosophical Hermeneutics of Gadamer in conjunction with the ideas
of van Manen .. 16
Max van Manens action sensitive phenomenological inquiry . 17
Research Method .. 19
The Research setting .. 19
Sampling method 20
Selection criteria . 20
Data collection . 21
Data analysis and interpretation ............... 21
Rigour establishing trustworthiness .............. 22
Plan for disseminating the study findings ............ 23
Ethical/political considerations . 23
7.0 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 24
8.0 References 25
9.0 Appendix A .. 29
Research Proposal
1.0 Preface
Developing the understanding of why undergraduate nursing students withdraw from the University.
Key words: nursing students experiences, attrition, nurse education
This research proposal comprises the following integral sections which develop the basis for my future Honours thesis:
Introduction which discusses the background to the proposed problem, the authors perspective on the issue, and the significance of the research;
Brief literature review;
Statement of the problem;
Justification of the selected research methodology, and a detailed discussion of the philosophical tradition that informs the study;
Discussion of the research methods;
Issues of rigour, and establishment of research integrity;
Ethical and political considerations;
Conclusion.
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Background
Over the last few decades, the problem of attrition has been conceptualised by international education communities, government agencies who deal with financing of the education sector, and various university administrations. At a range of different levels, many experts have been involved in gaining an understanding of the phenomenon of student attrition, and developing models of their retention and persistence throughout their studies (Sherrod et al 1992, Krause 2005, National audit office 2007). The earliest study on attrition was conducted in the USA by McNeely in 1937 (cited in Krause 2005).
The pioneering studies of student attrition from the university system were conducted by education theorists Spady (1970) and Tinto (1975) in the last quarter of the twentieth century. They formulated a model of integration between the person and the institution, based on the Durkheimian theory of suicide (Tinto 1975). Tinto followed Durkheims findings on suicide to postulate the idea of insufficient integration into the social system, thus identifying that a similar lack of integration resulted in the high student dropout rates from the university system. Tinto was the first researcher to classify attrition when he distinguished between voluntary and forced withdrawal, due to poor academic performance (Tinto, 1975, p.92). Since then, a conceptual model based on integration into the university environment has been the dominant paradigm amongst researchers in this field.
Over the last 10 years, the problem of attrition has been investigated from a different theoretical perspective. Australian education psychologist, Professor A. Lizzio (2006) developed a preventative model of attrition with a focus on the factors that contribute to student success. Based on Tintos theoretical assumptions, Lizzio classified five categories of student success: sense of academic culture, connection, purpose, resourcefulness and capability (Lizzio 2006). Even though the phenomenon of attrition has been under the consideration of the broader academic community and the public in general for quite some time, theoretical and methodological gaps still persist.
2.2 Authors interest in the problem
Involvement in an exploration of the issue came about through the experiences of two of the researchers close friends who pursued nursing as a career and later withdrew from the nursing program due to differing circumstances. On the contrary, the author successfully graduated from the same nursing program and was subsequently employed as a Registered Nurse at the largest metropolitan hospital in Adelaide. This series of events sparked a profound interest within the author to pursue research into the complexity of this phenomenon.
2.3 Significance of the research
Academic and administrative staff awareness at Flinders University regarding rates of attrition generated the necessity to explore the phenomenon deeply. The first step towards developing an understanding of student dropout rates was to create a number of new positions amongst academics - Directors of First Year Studies - in all schools of the University. The current study is being conducted in conjunction with the Director of First Year Studies in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at Flinders University, with the aim of generating some theoretical insights into attrition in the school. As the study aims to investigate the experiences of nursing students, the research outcomes will assist in addressing the students issues in order to develop a number of support mechanisms to enhance persistence amongst future students.
3.0 Review of the Literature
In recent times, the nursing student attrition-retention dichotomy has been under the constant scrutiny of the international academic nursing community and nursing educators. The international data indicates that student drop-out rates from nursing programs vary somewhat, from 37% in the United States to 65% in Italy (Pryjmachuk et al 2009, p.150). Alarmingly high attrition rates have also been seen at the domestic level in Australia, varying from 9.7% to 41.8% (Gaynor et al. 2007, p.18).
It is acknowledged that the highest attrition rates are found in the early stages of nursing programs (Andrew et al. 2008, p.865). The first year of an undergraduate nursing program is considered to be a volatile, stressful and challenging period for new students. A longitudinal Australian study of four cohorts of first year students, between 1994 and 2009, explored the students experiences throughout the first year of their studies, identifying problematic integration into Academia in 67% of students in 2009. Furthermore, it was clearly demonstrated that Australian university student dropout rates averaged between 25% and 27% in the first year of the nursing program, compared to 11% in the second year (Andrew et al. 2008, Gaynor et al. 2007, p.14).
Early studies of student attrition from the university system were conducted by education theorist Tinto (Tinto 1975). He formulated a model of integration between the person and the institution, based on Durkheims theory of suicide. Tinto followed Durkheims findings on suicide to postulate the idea of insufficient integration into the social system, thus identifying that a similar lack of integration resulted in the high dropout rates of students from the university system. Tinto was the first researcher who classified attrition when he distinguished between voluntary and forced withdrawal, due to poor academic performance (Tinto, 1975, p.92).
There is a copious body of literature about attrition, predominantly from a quantitative perspective. For example, a retrospective survey exploring the reasons why students dropped out of nursing courses was conducted by White et al (1999). The strength of the study was the wide recruitment base involving 4 cohorts of nursing course drop-outs who left between 1994 and 1996. Salamonson et al (2011) emphasized that part-time employment was strongly linked to academic failure and subsequent attrition from the course. Moreover, the authors indicated that students from non-English speaking backgrounds were more likely to leave the program. Up to this point, there has been little research conducted that involves students telling their own stories about the difficulties they have faced during their educational experience. Even less is known about the students perceptions and in-depth reflections on their decisions to leave university.
Poorman, Webb and Mastorovich (2002) conducted a retrospective hermeneutic study of at risk students. The researchers followed the narrative pedagogical approach introduced by Diekelmann, employing a hermeneutic phenomenological method to explore the experiences of self-identified at risk students during their studies. All twenty participants had completed their nursing degrees more than 2 years previously at the time of the study.
Kotecha (2002), in his multiple strategy case study investigation, informed by the theories of Tinto and Foucault, explored the experiences of five students who persisted until the end of their course, and five students who dropped out. Multiple data collection methods were used, including staff questionnaires, in-depth interviews with key staff, and analysis of key documents. From the data analysis, two major discourses employed by the institution emerged: the apprentice discourse and the autonomous discourse (Kotecha, 2002, p.213). The apprentice discourse is a purely technocratic, practical skills acquisition approach, while the academic discourse nourished the independent learners, who developed strong research skills. In-depth analysis indicated that the nurses who stayed in the course embraced both discourses and were successful in both the clinical and the academic modules. On the contrary, those who dropped out only managed to reach the level of the practical doers, strictly following the apprentice discourse and somewhat disengaging from the theoretical and analytical components of the program (Kotecha, 2002, p.215). It is apparent that more in-depth theoretical and practical insights are required in order to understand the complexity of the entire attrition phenomenon for nursing students.
4.0 Problem statement and research question
The purpose of this phenomenological study will be to explore the phenomenon of attrition among nursing students at a South Australian Metropolitan University.
The principal research question is formulated as:
What are the experiences of nursing students who withdrew from their nursing studies? A phenomenological study of a South Australian university.
5.0 The Research Approach
5.1 Qualitative research
The choice of the qualitative paradigm for this study is justified in terms of the type of data which is being sought. The author is aiming to obtain fresh, complex, and rich qualitative data on the phenomenon of attrition, as it is concretely lived by the students themselves. Although a quantitative design could enrich the problem research area, this approach lies within the positivist paradigm which aims to achieve objective data, and looks to verify empirical cause and effect relationships of a phenomenon (Polit and Beck 2012, p.14). The lived experiences of students are the focus of this study. The subjective nature of the experiences, participants feelings, reflections, and emotions can be more effectively explored within the tradition of naturalistic inquiry (Denzin and Lincoln 2011, p.8).
5.2 Consideration of Methodological Approach
The naturalistic paradigm offers a range of methodological traditions which could potentially be utilised to explore the phenomenon of student attrition. Ethnography, case study, critical theory, and phenomenology were initially considered as components of the theoretical framework for this study.
Ethnography is a methodology which explores the cultural patterns of different groups and implies extensive fieldwork with the targeted population (Polit and Beck 2012, p.492). This approach was disregarded as an appropriate methodology immediately after the aim of the study was formulated. The future participants of the study do not conform to a group of constantly interacting subjects with specific dynamics and culture (Denzin and Lincoln 2005, p.3). Rather, they are a dispersed group of people, not interacting with each other as such, after they left university.
Critical methodologies comprise a well-established theoretical framework within the qualitative paradigm. It combines the research process with a participatory nature of action as an integral component and is focused on change (Polit and Beck 2012, p.506). This methodology is similar to ethnographic enquiry, implying extensive fieldwork involving many cycles of data collection and analytical procedures. Moreover, as far as the participants are concerned, the potential subjects under investigation are a dispersed group, so the use of this type of methodology was not considered the appropriate approach for this study.
Case study would be a suitable methodology for this Honours project. The focus of the investigation of case studies is a social unit, or a single entity; for example, a group, institution or community (Polit and Hungler 1993, p.150). This approach equips the researcher with the tools to conduct the inquiry at a very in-depth level (Munhall 2012, p.360). It would be feasible to pursue this approach due to the time constraints of the project. However, the author has selected a dense philosophically-embedded phenomenological approach to fulfill two personal aspirations; to penetrate deeply into the philosophical matter of the phenomenon, and to better understand the philosophical tradition of phenomenology (Munhall 2012, p.113).
5.3 Selected Research Methodology
Phenomenology will form the theoretical basis of the research. More specifically, hermeneutic phenomenology, informed by the work of the contemporary Canadian phenomenologist Max van Manen, was selected as a methodology for the study (van Manen 1997). Phenomenology is considered to be a naturalistic method of inquiry and is aimed at exploring human experiences as they are lived and reflected in our consciousness (Finlay 2009, p.4). Therefore, the focus of this approach is on the life-world which is subjective, emotional, perceived, and lived (Kakkori 2009, p.1). At the highest conceptual level, phenomenology is represented in two major streams: descriptive and interpretive (Denzin and Lincoln 2005). This division stemmed from the nature of inquiry (epistemological versus ontological) and the different perceptions of the role of the researcher (Rapport and Wainwright 2006, p.228). Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, considered the researcher to be a close observer of reality via the reduction, or bracketing, of ones own perception, reflections and emotions (Husserl 1913/1931). On the other hand, Heidegger, and his follower Gadamer, saw the researcher in a more active position who introduces their own views, reflections and perceptions (Heidegger, 1936/2008, Gadamer 1975/2012). Gadamer strongly emphasised the dialogic nature of interpretive inquiry where the researcher and the participant are engaged in a conversation (Gadamer 1975/2012, p.360). Thus, Heidegger and Gadamer developed the hermeneutic tradition in phenomenology. This research will be situated in the hermeneutic tradition, as the author considers that his own active, engaged role in the inquiry will allow a holistic consideration of the phenomenon. At the same time, it seems to be problematic to fully embrace classical phenomenological thought due to the time constraints of an Honours project, therefore the author has selected a contemporary, practically-orientated phenomenological approach informed by the works of van Manen, which will be considered later in this paper. Moreover, van Manen acknowledged that his methodology is suitable for a researcher who comes from teaching, nursing and/or a psychology background (van Manen 1997, p.1).
Historically, as a philosophical movement, phenomenology originated in Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century (Finlay 2009, p. 10). Over time, it developed into German, French and North-American phenomenological streams, and is associated with the developed philosophical systems of Husserl, Heidegger, Gadamer, Dilthey, Merleau-Ponty, and others. In the 1970s, the move towards middle-range theories generated new practically-oriented phenomenological approaches in North America which were widely used in psychology (Giorgi, Moustakas), nursing (Benner) and education (van Manen) (Smith and Liehr 2008).
5.3.1 The hermeneutic phenomenology of Max van Manen as the research methodology for the study
In this section, the tenets of the philosophical tradition of hermeneutic phenomenology, which will underpin and guide the research, will be discussed. Firstly, van Manens standing in the phenomenological movement will be discussed, as will the unique features of his phenomenological ideas. Secondly, the main concepts of Husserl, Heidegger and Gadamer will be discussed, in addition to van Manens involvement in these phenomenological traditions.
van Manens methodology represents the symbiosis of two salient phenomenological traditions derived from descriptive and interpretive approaches (Kakkori 2009, p.2). It could be argued that in order to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenological ideas of van Manen, it is necessary to explore the worlds of Husserl, Heidegger and Gadamer. In this paper, however, the ideas of these three eminent phenomenologists will be discussed in connection with van Manens phenomenological concepts.
5.3.2 The Descriptive Phenomenology of E. Husserl in conjunction with the ideas of van Manen
The origins of the German phenomenological tradition and its further development are strongly linked with three eminent thinkers: Edmund Husserl, the founder of twentieth century phenomenology, Martin Heidegger and H-G Gadamer (Finlay 2009, p.5). It was discussed earlier in this paper that there is a clear methodological distinction between Husserls descriptive approach to phenomenology, and Heidegger and Gadamers interpretive approach. Edmund Husserl postulated his central methodological principle as departing from a purely positivist standpoint, attempting to return to the things themselves (Husserl, 1936/1970, p107). He conceptualized the human science project by considering the essence of consciousness, and through this approach, formulated the key concept of Lebenswelt - the life-world - as the primary focus of phenomenological inquiry (Husserl, 1936/1970, pp.108-109). The life-world is the experienced, lived world that appears meaningfully to consciousness in its qualitative, flow-given-ness; not an objective world out there, but a humanly relational world (Todres, 2007, p.55). van Manen characterised the lifeworld as preverbal and hard to describe (van Manen 1997, p.18). Furthermore, Husserl asserted the relational nature of the interaction between a persons consciousness and the life-world. Following Brentano, Husserl proposed the idea of intentionality as the active relationship of the subject with the world (Husserl 1900/1973, p.56).
In other words, Husserls phenomenology could be considered as the study of consciousness that is exploring active, conscious experience as experienced from the first-person point of view (Smith & Woodruff, 2011). These experiences may include: seeing, hearing, imagining, thinking, feeling, wishing, and acting. Thus the whole emphasis of phenomenological exploration is the active development and understanding of meaning; basically, what these experiences mean to the actors themselves. As Finlay argues, Husserls idea of intentionality attempted to dismiss the object-subject dichotomy and joined it together in mutual co-constitution (Finlay 2009, p.2). In relation to intentionality, van Manen stressed the essential characteristics of the concept, highlighting the fact that when we conduct research and then theorize, we perform an intentional act of attaching ourselves to the world, to become more fully part of it (van Manen 1997, p.5). Thus, he emphasised the rational nature of this connectedness and that it helps us to question the very secrets and intimacies of the world (van Manen 1997, p.12).
Meanings uncovered by the researcher emerge from the researchers attitudes and the way in which the researcher poses a question. Husserl in his later contemplations, introduced the method of bracketing which is a condition of consciousness wherein the researcher is able to successfully abandon his or her own lived reality and describe the phenomenon in its pure, universal sense (Wonjar & Swanson 2007, p.173). Husserl asserted that the researcher must suspend, or bracket, his/her own assumptions and prejudices in order to capture the pure meaning of the experienced world (Husserl 1936/1970). van Manen critiqued Husserls notion of bracketing as simply ignoring the known about the phenomenon (van Manen 1997, 175). Van Manen went a step further, emphasising the necessity to make explicit understandings, beliefs, and biases (van Manen 1997). As well, van Manen explored the idea of reduction, considering four types (1. awakening a sense of wonder and amasement in the world; 2. overcoming ones subjective or private feelings, inclinations; 3. to strip away the theories or scientific conceptions which overlay the object of study; 4. see past the particularity of the lived experience to discover the universal essences) which help the researcher to penetrate through dense layers of scientific concepts and over-theorising on a phenomenon, allowing the researcher to see phenomenon in a non-abstracting manner (van Manen 1997, p.185). By reduction, the phenomenological inquirer seeks to determine the essence of the phenomena. This notion of reduction is quite important for the author of this thesis, as it will assist him to unveil the true experiences of students who withdraw from their nursing studies. Overall, it is apparent that Husserls ideas were critically examined by van Manen, and then further developed, such as in the case of bracketing and reduction. However, as mentioned earlier, it is necessary to explore Heideggers hermeneutic philosophical heritage in order to embrace the full comprehension of the hermeneutic phenomenology of van Manen.
5.3.3 The Interpretive Phenomenology of M. Heidegger in conjunction with the ideas of van Manen
Martin Heidegger, the disciple and successor of Husserl, focused his own inquiry on purely ontological problems. Heideggers central concept of being-in-the-world (Dasein) is context-dependent, as opposed to the Husserlian concept of the lifeworld as being universal and non-contextual (Finlay 2009, p.8). Heidegger emphasised the role of history, nature, space, life, and language as the essential features of being-in-the-world (Heidegger 1927/2008, p.29). van Manen stands in the same philosophical vein, articulating the importance of context when the phenomenologist explores the phenomenon (van Manen 1997, p.88).
However, the controversial nature of van Manens historical, context-dependent phenomenological standpoint is evident when he recognised and argued for the importance of the essences, that is universal feature of the phenomenon (van Manen 1997, p.10). This approach followed the Husserlian idea of essences as the whatness of things, rather than the Heideggerian concept of thatness which is existence (van Manen 1997, p.177).
Characterising being-in-the-world, Heidegger introduced the idea of temporality as a primordial feature of Dasein (Heidegger 1927/2008, p.374). The linguistically sensible Heidegger utilised a triad of essential concepts, or nouns, to characterise the temporal features of Dasein: existence, thrownness, and fallenness (Heidegger 1927/2008, p.220). The most important characteristic is thrownness as it represents the Dasein as being incarnated in the spiritual and material world, in a historically conditioned environment (Plager 1994, p.62). Heidegger claimed that we are thrown in the world and that our Being-in-the-world is thrownness (Heidegger 1927/2008, p.219). Thus, it could be understood that we are thrown as Beings into the ready-made world. Heidegger also incorporated thrownness with another central concept - Others. He stated: Being is an issue, both in its Being alongside the world and in its Being-with Others (Heidegger 1927/2008, p.224). Therefore, it could be concluded that we co-exist with Others. Furthermore, Heidegger illuminated one particular type of Being as Being-with Others and he formulated that the understanding of another helps us to interpret our own Being (King 2001). This stance is quite important for the research as Others - nursing students experiences - will assist in generating new insights on the phenomenon of attrition and could generate new approaches to develop ways for other students to persist in the program and succeed. Overall, in order to fully embrace the philosophical and methodological depth of van Manens ideas, it is necessary to discuss his theoretical insights and involvement in the phenomenological tradition.
5.3.4 Philosophical Hermeneutics of Gadamer in conjunction with the ideas of van Manen
Gadamer, the follower of Heidegger, was trained in the tradition of neo-Kantian scholarship and classical philosophy (Malpas 2012, p.1). He developed a thoroughly dialogical approach, grounded in Platonic-Aristotelian and Heideggerian thinking (Malpas 2012, p.1). Gadamer developed an approach called philosophical hermeneutics (Davey 2006, p.13). Early hermeneutics stemmed from the medieval biblical exegesis (interpretations), and was further developed in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries into the theory of textual interpretation (Malpas 2012, p.5). Heidegger redeployed hermeneutics, but from a different angle. He encompassed hermeneutics into the development of understanding itself, as an always already given structure, opposed to mere theories of textual interpretation (Heidegger 2008, p.220). Gadamers approach developed a strong anti-methodological stance and claimed that there is no scientific method that can provide access to the truth (Davey 2006, p.12). He asserted that the scientific method, as a way of inquiry, is applicable for the science, but is not suitable for the human science project (or the social sciences) (Gadamer 1975/2012). Van Manens stand in this argument is interesting to consider. On the one hand, he follows Gadamers anti-methodological proposition through a strong notion of method as a technocratic tool (van Manen 1997, p.27). On the other hand, he offers a systematic approach in conducting the research through six specific research activities (van Manen 1997).
Gadamer constructed the dialogical approach in hermeneutics to challenge the traditional methodological considerations of the human sciences (Malpas 2012, p.5). He pondered on the model of Platonic Dialectic and introduced the conversation, or the dialogue, as a model of understanding (Gadamer 1975/2012, p.356). Gadamer conceived of dialogue, not as a way to set up an argument, but rather, he praised Socrates non-confrontational model of communication where the conversing parties explore the issue to seek an agreement (Gadamer 1975/2012). Similarly, van Manen highlighted the non-polemic, collaborative features of dialogue, and the importance of generating interpretive insights by the parties to the dialogue (van Manen 1997, p.100). Moreover, van Manen explored the concept of the hermeneutic interview, referring to Gadamers idea of the open question (van Manen 1997, p.98). Openness to dialogue is considered by Gadamer as a core component to unravel the structures of understanding while communicating ideas (Gadamer 1975/2012, p.356). Van Manen organically connected the idea of openness to Heideggers concept of caring, where the participants are open to dialogue, and therefore they start to care about it (van Manen 1997, p.98). Overall, in order to fully embrace the philosophical and methodological depth of van Manens ideas, it is necessary to discuss his theoretical insights and involvement in the phenomenological tradition.
5.3.5 Max van Manens action sensitive phenomenological inquiry
As mentioned earlier, van Manens human science project belongs to a hermeneutic phenomenological, interpretive paradigm, with a significant influence stemming from the descriptive phenomenological tradition. As Earle (2010) points out, van Manen theoretically distinguishes between phenomenology and hermeneutics. van Manen stated that phenomenology is pure description of lived experience, whereas hermeneutics is an interpretation of experience via some text or symbolic form (van Manen 1997, p.25). van Manen postulated the unity of description and interpretation and chooses to use description to include both conceptual components.
van Manen, strictly following the hermeneutical tradition, claims that the lived experience has to be captured in the language and later interpreted (Giorgi and Giorgi 2008). In this methodological vein, van Manens focus is on hermeneutic phenomenological reflection and writing (van Manen 1997). His hermeneutic text-making is a complex process of prolonged writing and re-writing which aims to construct a composite anecdote based on a range of experiences of the phenomenon (Willis 2004). These anecdotes, or stories, in the end, aim to uncover the essential meanings of the phenomenon.
Rapport interestingly noted that van Manens approach to phenomenology was to turn the inquiry into a living text (Rapport 2005, p.57). Text writing, for van Manen, is a contemplative process. This process consolidates three critical components actions: reflection, speaking, and writing-re-writing. Interestingly enough, just as Heidegger was intensely engaged in finding new meanings and ways of the expression of Dasein, utilising the linguistic intricacies of the German language, so was van Manen focused on etymological reflections, as a tool to penetrate the true meaning of the phenomenon (Wheeler, 2011). He continues to justify the importance of searching the basic etymological roots of words, arguing that primordial experience is expressed in the words. That is why he asserted that the phenomenologist, a human science researcher, is a scholar: a sensitive observer of the subtleties of everyday life (van Manen 1997, p.30). He alerts us, though, to the fact that this linguistic, etymological retrieving of meanings is not simply for the sake of mere theorising. It is the reconstruction of ways of life (van Manen 1997).
To summarise, in this section, the author outlined the main tenets of the philosophical tradition which underpins the study. The hermeneutic phenomenology of van Manen was discussed in the context of Husserl, Heidegger and Gadamers philosophical views, as well as the unique features of van Manens understanding of phenomenology. As Earle noted, in regards to the distinct peculiarities of van Manens methodology in comparison to his predecessors: in van Manens approach to phenomenology, he offers more specific methodological guidelines for researchers interested in conducting phenomenological inquiry (Earle 2010, p.289). Overall, the author has attempted to justify the choice of van Manens hermeneutic phenomenology as the most suitable methodology for this study. The next section will concentrate on the methods involved in the study, including a discussion of the setting and the participants, as well as the data collection, interpretation, and analysis.
6.0 Research method
This section will describe the methods of data collection which will be utilised in order to understand the nursing students experiences which saw them, under various life circumstances, withdraw from their nursing program. A qualitative research framework underpins the study, utilising van Manens hermeneutic phenomenological approach to investigate the lived experiences of nursing students who withdrew from their studies.
This section discusses the research design, with a focus on the setting, the participants characteristics, and an outline of the sampling inclusion criteria. It will be followed by a discussion of the method of data collection and how it is appropriate for the study, and finally, the analytical procedures to be applied to the data will be considered. Van Manens framework for the research activities in collecting and analyzing the data was selected (van Manen 1997). As well, the ethical and political considerations will be discussed as the research is conducted in a social setting, therefore maintaining privacy and anonymity is the highest priority for the participants. The section will be concluded with a discussion about the interpretation of the research findings.
6.1 The Research setting
At this point of time, the study setting is the Bachelor of Nursing (Undergraduate) program in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at Flinders University in Adelaide, South Australia. The author is aware of the overarching nature of the term undergraduate program, as it comprises a few different streams of commencing students: post-registration students Enrolled Nurses stream; Graduate Entry Students; and re-entry students. The time parameter for the study will cover the period from 2010 to 2012, as the statistical data from the Student Enrolment Office indicated high rates of student attrition over this period. The timeframe of two years will offer a rich and diverse student cohort, aimed at providing rich material informing this research.
6.2 Sampling method
It was determined early in the study that the sampling procedures would be aimed at recruiting subjects with particular characteristics (Polit and Hungler 1993). Purposive sampling will be utilized to recruit participants for this study. This approach implies the selection of participants by the researcher who already has some knowledge of the issue (Polit and Hungler 1993). Ayres argues that a relatively small sample size is needed for qualitative research (Ayers 2007). As Polit and Beck point out, qualitative research sample size is also guided by what is known as data saturation. This occurs when the data is exhausted and no more new information, or categories of information, emerge from the data (Polit and Beck 2012). The authors also specified that in phenomenological research, the sample size is usually 10 or less participants (Polit and Beck 2012). Accordingly, the author will take these assumptions into consideration when recruiting participants.
6.3 Selection criteria
To be considered as a potential participant for the study, the students will need to meet a few specific requirements. Participants will need to have discontinued their studies in the Flinders University Bachelor of Nursing Undergraduate Program, withdrawing from the course in the first year of the program between 2010 and 2012. Another essential component of the inclusion profile is the ability to convey ideas and to correspond in the English language. Finally, the decision to withdraw should have been made by the participants themselves, and not as a result of dismissal due to non-fulfillment of the requirements of the program. Following the ethical approval, the information about potential participants will be requested from the Student Enrolment Office at Flinders University, with support from the Flinders University School of Nursing and Midwifery.
6.4 Data collection
Polit and Beck suggest that when the researcher is not directive about the flow of information, then the unstructured interview may be the most useful tool for data collection (Polit and Beck 2012). The author has decided to interview participants through unstructured, in-depth interviews, with primarily open-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow the researcher to: expand the area of the conversation, deepen the discussion of the topic, fully explore the issues, and to seek clarification, if necessary (DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree 2006).
6.5 Data analysis and interpretation
In order to embrace the principles of data analysis in a phenomenological manner, the author decided to use van Manens approach to the various research activities required to conduct deep research.
van Manens methodical structure for human science research
Turning to the nature of the lived experience;
Investigating experience as we live it, rather than as we conceptualise it;
Reflecting on the essential themes which characterise the phenomenon;
Activity three will be discussed in detail through a thematic analysis. The author will employ a framework for the thematic analysis as developed by Braun and Clark (Braun and Clark 2006), who offer step-by-step guidelines comprising of six phases. In activity three, the researcher may consider employing fiction and poetry, as these expressive genres of the Arts may provide deeper and richer descriptors of the phenomenon (Furman et al 2007).
Describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and rewriting;
Maintaining a strong orientation to the phenomenon;
Balancing the research context by considering both the parts and the whole.
6.6 Rigour establishing trustworthiness
Establishment of trustworthiness in qualitative research is critical in terms of upholding the quality of the content (Polit and Beck 2012). However, issues of rigour are still highly debatable amongst academics (Sandelowski 1993; Koch and Harrington 1998; Denzin and Lincoln 2005). Koch and Harrington asserted that the final text of the research should be considered to be credible, rather than absolute and the truth (Koch and Harrington 1998). The whole idea of absoluteness or relativity in this debate is based on the researchers position in relation to truth, being that relativity occurs when something from the text relates to the reader, when, as Koch proposed, someone is nodding. The idea of phenomenological nodding, introduced by Koch (1995), constitutes the appraisal by the reader of similarity to his/her own experience and is acknowledged by him/her.
Polit and Beck offer a number of criteria for rigour, being: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Polit and Beck 2012, p.584). However, as Koch and Harrington propose, these criteria are still aligned to the constructivist, scientific paradigm (Koch and Harrington 1998). Accordingly, it could be suggested that the notion of absoluteness of knowledge, which upholds the constructivist paradigm, is not suitable for plausibility assessment in qualitative research. Thus, the author will utilise the criteria offered by Sandelowski (1986) and Beck (1993) (cited in Koch and Harrington 1998).
Credibility in hermeneutic inquiry refers to detailed and contextual writing. It is the ability of the researcher to maintain transparency in decision-making (Koch 1994). As a result of this principle, the author has decided to write a reflective diary in order to demonstrate his decision-making on the research process. Next, fittingness, also referred to as transferability, implies a thick description of the phenomenon under study with the potential to be replicated (Polit and Beck 2012, p.585). Finally, auditability is a stance whereby the research should be conducted with a view to the possibility of an external audit of the data being conducted by a third party. The author will follow the University policies to store the data, and will leave a detail trail to ensure auditability at all stages of the research (Koch 1994).
6.7 Plan for disseminating the study findings
This research aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the phenomenon of student attrition. The author plans to disseminate the findings in scholarly publications by submission to academic journals. Secondly, the author will disseminate the findings further by attending international nursing seminars and congresses. Thirdly, a number of recommendations from the findings may generate crucial support programs within the School of Nursing and Midwifery at Flinders University to enhance student persistence in, and successful completion of, the program.
6.8 Ethical/political considerations
The researcher aims to adhere to the highest ethical standards of research conduct when it comes to identity protection through anonymity, and treatment of the data. In order to maintain the highest ethical conduct, the researcher will initially seek ethical clearance from the Flinders University Social and Behavioural Research Committee.
Secondly, all potential participants will be fully informed about the aims of the study and the research activities via the information sheet (Taylor, Kermode and Roberts 2002). The author will obtain informed consent from each participant prior to each interview. The participants will be given the option to withdraw from the study at any point, and anonymity will be maintained at all stages of the research. Finally, ethical maintenance of the research data will be ensured through the development of precise audit trails.
As the author does not have any direct influence on the lives of the participants, nor is there any potential power relationship involved, there are no concerns in this regard nor are there any conflicts of interest.
7.0 Conclusion
This paper has established the significance of understanding the phenomenon of attrition amongst nursing students. The author has conceptualised the phenomenon of attrition, however, new theoretical insights were considered as the problem had been previously studied from a predominantly quantitative perspective. Therefore, a qualitative approach was justified as a deeper understanding of the phenomenon could generate new knowledge and new strategies to manage it.
The author discussed the methodological tradition behind the proposed study. It was found that hermeneutic phenomenological inquiry will best serve the aims of the research. As for research methods, the suitability of van Manens analytical activities were established as the ideal method for analyzing the data that will be collected in the study. In the final section of the paper, issues of rigour, and ethical considerations, were addressed.
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Appendix A
Proposed Timeline for Research Project
Dates Activities
2nd April 2013 Research Proposal submitted
30th June 2013 Literature Review submitted
September 2013 Ethics approval application submitted
December 2013 February 2014 Participant recruitment and data collection
March 2014 Data analysis takes place
April August 2014 Findings and Discussion written
September 2014 Draft thesis submitted to supervisors
October 2014 Thesis submitted
December 2014 Final seminar
