Neuroscientific Insights into Neural Plasticity, the Predictive Brain, and Memory Reconsolidation: Implications for Counselling and Psychotherapy

Neuroscientific Insights into Neural Plasticity, the Predictive Brain, and Memory Reconsolidation: Implications for Counselling and Psychotherapy

Keeley M. Harrison

Student ID: 266682

Cognitive and affective neuroscience significantly advances our understanding of counselling and psychotherapy by clarifying the neural mechanisms influencing human behaviour and emotions (Zhang, 2024). This intersection not only informs therapeutic practices but also drives the development of innovative treatment strategies (Zhang, 2024). This literature review will critically examine three key neuroscience concepts and their implications for counselling and psychotherapy: memory reconsolidation, the predictive brain, and neuroplasticity. Memory reconsolidation (MR) showcases the brain's ability to modify existing memories and associated behaviours through neurological activations and neural encoding (Otared et al., 2024). This dynamic process highlights the potential for altering maladaptive behaviours through targeted interventions. The Bayesian theory of the predictive brain represents another cornerstone in cognitive neuroscience, suggesting that the brain operates as a predictive coding machine, constantly generating expectations based on sensory inputs (Hinton, 2017; Friston, 2012). These predictions are shaped by past experiences, cultural influences, and environmental factors (Yon & Firth, 2021). Lastly, neuroplasticity refers to the brain's capacity to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning, experience, or injury (Lea, 2022). This adaptive process supports various cognitive functions, including learning, memory, and recovery from brain injuries, demonstrating the brain's remarkable ability to adapt throughout life (Zotey et al., 2023; Forget & Le Pertel, 2024). This literature review will synthesise recent research findings to integrate diverse perspectives from neuroscientific research and psychotherapeutic applications. By analysing these concepts and their implications for counselling practice, this review aims to identify critical gaps necessitating further exploration and provide comprehensive insights into commonalities among themes across these concepts within the context of counselling.

Memory Reconsolidation

MR is a neurobiological process through which the brain updates existing memories by reactivating and re-encoding them (Otared et al., 2024). When a long-term memory is recalled, it becomes temporarily malleable, allowing for potential changes in its content and associated emotional and behavioural responses before it is re-stored (Ecker & Bridges, 2020). This dynamic process relies on synaptic plasticity and protein synthesis, including mechanisms like the ubiquitin-proteasome system, which destabilise and re-stabilise synaptic connections crucial for memory modification (Shrestha & Klann, 2022; Bellfy & Kwapis, 2020).

Understanding MR is pivotal in therapeutic contexts, where it is utilized to address maladaptive memories, particularly those linked to trauma or negative experiences. In counselling, MR serves as a methodological approach to destabilize such memories and subsequently update or even extinguish them through targeted therapeutic techniques (Pine, Mendelsohn, & Dudai, 2014). By activating memories during their labile state, therapists facilitate the integration of new information or emotional responses, enabling clients to reinterpret past experiences and alleviate current emotional burdens (Phelps & Hofmann, 2019).

The application of MR in psychotherapy aims not only to modify memory content but also to alter associated emotional and behavioural responses. This process helps clients develop adaptive coping strategies and enhances emotional resilience by reshaping how past memories influence present experiences (Lane et al., 2015). It underscores the evolving understanding that memories are dynamic constructs influenced by ongoing experiences and therapeutic interventions, rather than static representations of past events.

In summary, MR represents a powerful tool in counselling and psychotherapy, enabling the targeted modification of memories to promote psychological healing and resilience. By harnessing the brain's capacity for memory reconsolidation, therapists can facilitate profound therapeutic changes that empower clients to effectively manage and overcome the impact of past traumas and negative experiences.

The predictive brain

The predictive brain, as defined by Bayesian theory in cognitive neuroscience, is a fundamental concept contextualized within counselling practices. It posits the brain as a predictive coding system that continuously generates expectations and interpretations based on prior experiences (Bijak & Bryant, 2016; Krupnik, 2019). This predictive process involves anticipating and preparing for future events by interpreting incoming sensory information through learned patterns and expectations (Friston, 2012). These predictions, termed 'priors', are not static but can be updated based on new sensory data, influencing how individuals perceive and respond to their internal states and external environment (Hinton, 2017).

In the counselling context, the predictive brain theory addresses several key themes. Firstly, it explores the functional mechanisms by which the brain generates and updates predictions, emphasising the role of past experiences and cultural influences in shaping these processes (Hinton, 2017). Secondly, it examines how deviations in predictive processing can contribute to mental disorders such as depression and anxiety, highlighting the brain's role in maintaining maladaptive patterns of thought and behaviour (Smith et al., 2020; Kube et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the theory enhances therapeutic approaches by informing interventions like Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), which aim to modify dysfunctional priors through cognitive restructuring and behavioural techniques (Krupnik, 2019). Additionally, it underscores the importance of the therapeutic alliance, suggesting that effective counselling outcomes depend on aligning the predictive processes of therapist and client to foster mutual understanding and rapport (McParlin et al., 2022; Koole & Tschacher, 2016).

In summary, the predictive brain theory provides a detailed framework within counselling, offering insights into how cognitive processes influence mental health and therapeutic outcomes. Its application underscores the dynamic interplay between past experiences, sensory input, and therapeutic strategies, emphasising its relevance in understanding and addressing psychological distress effectively.

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's remarkable ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life in response to learning, experience, or injury (Kolb & Whishaw, 2015). This dynamic process allows the brain to adapt and change in both structure and function, enabling individuals to acquire new skills, recover from brain injuries, and adjust to environmental changes.

At its core, neuroplasticity involves several mechanisms that facilitate these adaptive changes. One key mechanism is synaptic plasticity, which refers to the ability of synapses (connections between neurons) to strengthen or weaken over time in response to increased or decreased activity. This process underpins learning and memory formation, as synaptic connections that are frequently activated become stronger, while those that are rarely used may weaken or disappear (Cramer et al., 2011).

Another crucial aspect of neuroplasticity is structural plasticity, which involves the physical changes in neurons and their connections. This includes the growth of new dendrites (branches that receive signals from other neurons) and the formation of new synapses. Structural changes allow the brain to rewire itself in response to experiences, forming new circuits or refining existing ones to optimize function (Holtmaat & Svoboda, 2009).

Neuroplasticity is not limited to specific brain regions but occurs throughout the entire nervous system, from the molecular level to large-scale cortical reorganization. It plays a fundamental role in various cognitive processes, including learning, memory, and recovery from brain injuries such as strokes or trauma. Therapeutically, neuroplasticity forms the basis for rehabilitation strategies that aim to harness the brain's adaptive capabilities to restore function and improve the quality of life in individuals with neurological disorders (Kleim & Jones, 2008).

In summary, neuroplasticity represents the brain's ability to adapt and reorganise itself throughout life in response to experiences and environmental changes. By understanding and harnessing neuroplasticity, researchers and clinicians can develop interventions that promote learning, recovery, and overall brain health across the lifespan.

Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2015). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology (7th ed.). Macmillan.

Cramer, S. C., Sur, M., Dobkin, B. H., O'Brien, C., Sanger, T. D., Trojanowski, J. Q., Rumsey, J. M., Hicks, R., Cameron, J., Chen, D., Chen, W. G., Cohen, L. G., deCharms, C., Duffy, C. J., Eden, G. F., Fetz, E. E., Filart, R., Freund, M., Grant, S. J., Haber, S., ... & Wong, T. (2011). Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications. Brain, 134(6), 1591-1609.

Holtmaat, A., & Svoboda, K. (2009). Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(9), 647-658.

Kleim, J. A., & Jones, T. A. (2008). Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51(1), S225-S239.

Therapeutic applications

In therapeutic contexts, MR offers promising avenues for interventions, particularly for trauma-related disorders (Raut et al., 2022). By leveraging the brain's ability to alter emotional and cognitive responses linked to traumatic memories, techniques such as cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) can effectively mitigate symptoms of PTSD and anxiety (Raut et al., 2022). For instance, studies by Phelps and Hofmann (2019) have demonstrated that MR techniques can modulate emotional responses, leading to significant reductions in PTSD symptoms. Moreover, case studies have highlighted the successful application of MR in counselling, where clients have shown improved emotional regulation and decreased trauma-related distress following MR-based interventions.

Studies by Schroyens et al. (2023) show efficacy with pharmacological aids like propranolol. However, Raut et al. (2022) and Argolo et al., (2015) highlight mixed results, noting that propranolol's long-term effects are unclear and effectiveness varies among individuals. Ethical concerns about altering personal memories also persist. Future research should focus on diverse populations and ethical considerations to optimize MR's therapeutic potential

In therapy, understanding the predictive brain can significantly enhance therapeutic approaches by targeting maladaptive prediction patterns (Steffen et al., 2022). For example, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) can be adapted to address and modify negative predictive biases, thereby improving treatment outcomes (Krupnik, 2019). Mindfulness-Based Therapy (MBT) also benefits from this theory, as it enhances the accuracy of sensory information processing, reducing prediction errors and fostering a more accurate perception of reality (Manjaly & Iglesias, 2020). These therapeutic practices leverage the brain's predictive mechanisms to help patients recalibrate their expectations and improve mental health.

In the therapeutic context, the predictive brain theory offers a novel perspective on how mental disorders can be understood and treated. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is particularly well-suited to leverage this theory. By focusing on altering maladaptive predictions, CBT can help patients reassess and modify their cognitive biases, which are often rooted in negative past experiences. This recalibration of predictive models can lead to significant improvements in symptoms of depression and anxiety (Krupnik, 2019).

Mindfulness-Based Therapy (MBT) also draws upon the predictive brain framework. MBT practices enhance the brain's ability to process sensory information accurately, thereby reducing prediction errors. This heightened awareness allows individuals to respond to their environment more adaptively, rather than being guided by erroneous expectations formed from past experiences (Manjaly & Iglesias, 2020). By fostering a non-judgmental awareness of the present moment, MBT helps patients break the cycle of negative predictions that contribute to mental distress.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is another therapeutic approach informed by predictive coding. EMDR facilitates the reprocessing of traumatic memories, enabling the brain to update its predictive models with new, less distressing information. This process helps to diminish the emotional charge of traumatic memories, reducing symptoms of PTSD and other trauma-related disorders (Hinton, 2017).

Moreover, understanding the predictive brain can enhance the therapeutic alliance, a crucial factor in successful therapy outcomes. Therapists can use this knowledge to better align their interventions with the patient's expectations and cognitive patterns, thereby fostering a stronger, more collaborative relationship. Active inference, a concept derived from predictive coding, suggests that both therapist and patient engage in a mutual process of predicting and adjusting to each other's responses, leading to a more synchronized and effective therapeutic interaction (McParlin et al., 2022).

In sum, integrating the predictive brain theory into therapeutic practices not only offers a deeper understanding of mental disorders but also provides practical strategies for enhancing treatment efficacy. By focusing on the brain's predictive mechanisms, therapists can develop more tailored and effective interventions that address the root causes of cognitive and emotional distress. Future research should continue to explore these applications, further validating the predictive brain framework and its potential to transform therapeutic approaches

Memory Reconsolidation, the Predictive Brain, and Neuroplasticity share several commonalities that underscore their relevance in therapeutic contexts:

Therapeutic Alliance and Clinical Application:

Therapeutic Alliance: All three concepts emphasize the importance of the therapeutic alliance between therapist and client. A strong therapeutic alliance facilitates effective implementation of therapeutic techniques derived from these theories. In Memory Reconsolidation, the alliance supports the destabilization and reformation of memories through trust and collaboration. Similarly, in the Predictive Brain theory, aligning the therapist's and client's predictive processes fosters mutual understanding and enhances treatment outcomes. Neuroplasticity highlights the role of supportive relationships in promoting neural adaptation and recovery, crucial for rehabilitation and learning in therapeutic settings.

Adaptive Responses to Experience:

Neurobiological Adaptation: Each concept explores how the brain adapts to experiences. Memory Reconsolidation focuses on modifying memories in response to new emotional or cognitive information, reflecting the brain's ongoing adaptation to environmental cues. The Predictive Brain theory elucidates how the brain continuously updates predictions based on incoming sensory information and prior experiences, influencing perceptual and cognitive processes. Neuroplasticity extends this adaptive capacity to structural changes in neural circuits, enabling learning, recovery from injury, and behavioral adaptation over the lifespan.

Integration into Therapeutic Techniques:

Clinical Applications: All three concepts inform therapeutic techniques aimed at enhancing psychological well-being. Memory Reconsolidation techniques, such as memory updating and extinction protocols, are integrated into therapies for trauma and anxiety disorders to modify maladaptive memories. The Predictive Brain theory informs cognitive-behavioral interventions by targeting and reshaping dysfunctional priors, improving cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation. Neuroplasticity underpins rehabilitation strategies that harness the brain's adaptive plasticity to restore function and promote recovery in neurological conditions like stroke or neurodegenerative diseases.

Holistic Approach to Mental Health:

Comprehensive Care: Together, these concepts advocate for a holistic approach to mental health that integrates neurobiological insights with therapeutic practices. They emphasize personalized treatment approaches that consider individual differences in neuroplasticity, predictive processing, and memory consolidation. By addressing the dynamic interplay between brain function, environmental influences, and psychological well-being, therapists can tailor interventions to optimize outcomes across diverse clinical populations.

In summary, Memory Reconsolidation, the Predictive Brain, and Neuroplasticity converge on promoting adaptive responses to experiences, enhancing therapeutic alliances, informing clinical applications, and advocating for a holistic approach to mental health care. Their integration into therapeutic practices underscores their collective impact in advancing neuroscience and improving treatment efficacy across various psychological and neurological conditions.

.

Comparative Analysis and Synthesis (~700 words)

Compare findings across neural plasticity, the predictive brain, and memory reconsolidation, identifying common themes and divergent perspectives.

Synthesize how these concepts integrate with current counselling practices and theories, highlighting their combined implications for therapeutic efficacy.

Memory reconsolidation, the predictive brain, and neuroplasticity are interconnected concepts that contribute significantly to therapeutic approaches, especially in the realm of cognitive and affective neuroscience. Here are the common themes within therapy that emerge from these concepts:

In therapeutic practice, the application of predictive coding theories underscores the importance of therapeutic rapport and alliance. Studies by McParlin et al. (2022) illustrate how the concept of active inferencewhere individuals actively seek and interpret sensory information to refine predictionsenhances the therapeutic alliance. This alignment of cognitive processes between therapist and client fosters mutual understanding and collaborative goal-setting, crucial for effective treatment outcomes (Vasil et al., 2020; Koole & Tschacher, 2016).

1. Adaptive Learning and Behavioral Change

Therapies leveraging memory reconsolidation, the predictive brain, and neuroplasticity often aim to promote adaptive learning and behavioral change. Memory reconsolidation suggests that memories can be updated or modified through reactivation and subsequent reconsolidation processes. Therapists use this understanding to facilitate new learning experiences that can overwrite maladaptive memories or behaviors. Techniques such as exposure therapy, cognitive restructuring, and mindfulness-based interventions capitalize on neuroplasticity to promote the restructuring of neural networks and the formation of new, adaptive patterns of thinking and behavior.

2. Emotional Regulation and Resilience

Central to therapies integrating these concepts is the enhancement of emotional regulation and resilience. The predictive brain theory posits that the brain continuously makes predictions about future events based on past experiences. Dysfunctional predictions can lead to maladaptive emotional responses and behaviors. Through interventions that induce memory reconsolidation and leverage neuroplasticity, therapists help individuals update these predictions, promoting more accurate and adaptive responses to emotional stimuli. Techniques like emotion-focused therapy or dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) utilize these principles to foster emotional awareness, regulation, and resilience in clients.

3. Integration of Experiential Learning

Therapeutic approaches focusing on memory reconsolidation, the predictive brain, and neuroplasticity emphasize experiential learning. Rather than merely discussing issues cognitively, therapies encourage active engagement with emotional and cognitive experiences. By engaging in activities that challenge existing predictive models or maladaptive memories, individuals can restructure their neural networks and update their behavioral responses. This experiential learning approach is evident in therapies like EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing) or psychodynamic therapies, where reprocessing traumatic memories or exploring unconscious dynamics aims to create new neural pathways that support healthier functioning.

4. Personalized and Targeted Interventions

Advancements in neuroscience have enabled therapists to personalize and target interventions based on individual neurobiological profiles and therapeutic goals. Understanding how memory reconsolidation and neuroplasticity work at the neural level allows therapists to tailor interventions to maximize efficacy. For example, interventions may vary in intensity, duration, or specific techniques based on the client's responsiveness to memory reactivation and their neuroplastic potential. This personalized approach enhances treatment outcomes by optimizing the brain's ability to adapt and change in response to therapeutic interventions.

5. Long-term Effects and Maintenance of Treatment Gains

Therapeutic approaches integrating memory reconsolidation, the predictive brain, and neuroplasticity often focus on achieving sustainable, long-term effects. By facilitating neuroplastic changes through memory reconsolidation techniques, therapists aim not only to alleviate current symptoms but also to promote enduring changes in behavior and cognition. Strategies for maintaining treatment gains often involve continued practice of adaptive behaviors, reinforcement of new learning experiences, and strategies for preventing relapse. This emphasis on long-term effects underscores the transformative potential of these therapies in promoting lasting psychological well-being.

In summary, therapies that incorporate memory reconsolidation, the predictive brain, and neuroplasticity share common themes centered around adaptive learning, emotional regulation, experiential learning, personalized interventions, and long-term effectiveness. These concepts represent a convergence of cognitive and affective neuroscience with clinical practice, offering promising avenues for enhancing therapeutic outcomes and addressing complex mental health challenges.

In therapy, when integrating memory reconsolidation (MR) and the predictive brain theory (PBT), several common themes emerge that therapists often focus on:

Updating Maladaptive Predictions: Both MR and PBT emphasize the importance of updating maladaptive predictions or expectations about future events based on past experiences. Therapists work to identify and modify these predictions to reduce anxiety and improve adaptive responses.

Exposure and Reconsolidation: Therapeutic techniques often involve exposure to triggering stimuli or memories followed by reconsolidation processes. This sequence helps in updating the emotional and cognitive associations linked with traumatic or distressing memories.

Enhancing Prediction Accuracy: PBT suggests that the brain constantly predicts future events based on past experiences. Therapists help clients enhance the accuracy of these predictions, reducing negative anticipation and enhancing adaptive coping strategies.

Contextual Learning: Both theories emphasize the importance of context in memory retrieval and reconsolidation. Therapists facilitate learning new contexts or interpretations that can reshape how memories are stored and recalled.

Integration with Behavioral Techniques: Therapists often integrate behavioral techniques such as cognitive restructuring, exposure therapy, and mindfulness practices. These techniques aim to facilitate new learning experiences that align with updated predictions and reduce emotional distress.

Time-Dependent Interventions: Understanding the timing of interventions is crucial. PBT suggests that memory updating is most effective when memories are in a labile state, often shortly after reactivation. Therapists use this window to implement interventions that promote reconsolidation.

Individualized Treatment Approaches: Therapists tailor interventions based on individual differences in memory processing, prediction errors, and response to therapeutic techniques. This personalized approach enhances the effectiveness of treatment outcomes.

Long-Term Behavioral Change: Both MR and PBT aim for sustainable behavioral change by altering underlying predictive processes and emotional responses. Therapists work towards promoting lasting changes in how clients anticipate, interpret, and respond to future events.

These themes highlight the integration of cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific principles in therapeutic practice, aiming to optimize treatment outcomes for various mental health conditions influenced by memory and prediction errors.

Critical Evaluation of Current Research (~600 words)

Critically analyze strengths and limitations of current research on neural plasticity, predictive coding, and memory reconsolidation in counselling.

Evaluate implications for counselling practice and theory development, considering both neuroscientific insights and clinical applications.

Identify gaps in the literature and propose areas for future research to advance understanding and treatment effectiveness in counselling and psychotherapy.

Conclusion (~500 words)

Summarize major findings from the literature review, emphasizing key insights into cognitive and affective neuroscience's role in counselling.

Evaluate the current state of knowledge in this field, discussing advancements, challenges, and potential applications for clinical practice.

Provide recommendations for advancing research and enhancing therapeutic practices through continued integration of neuroscience into counselling and psychotherapy.

. The following sheds light on the engagement of mechanisms such as neuromodulator observations of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), oxytocin system modulation, as well as optimization of the predictive coding systems (PCS) are the possible mechanisms through which self-compassion leads to reorganization

Strengths and limitations

Despite the potential of MR, the current research landscape presents both strengths and limitations. The primary strength lies in the empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of MR in short-term therapeutic outcomes, particularly when combined with pharmacological interventions (Schroyens, Beckers, & Luyten, 2023). However, limitations persist in the form of ethical concerns regarding memory alteration, the variability in individual responses, and the lack of long-term follow-up studies. Future research must address these gaps by exploring diverse populations and settings, refining therapeutic protocols, and ensuring ethical guidelines are robustly followed. Continuous advancements in neuroscientific and psychotherapeutic methods will be essential in fully harnessing MR's potential for long-term psychological healing and resilience

Despite its strengths, the predictive brain theory faces several limitations. One major critique is the lack of empirical evidence supporting its broad application across various cognitive processes (Colombo et al., 2021). Additionally, some researchers argue that an overemphasis on predictive coding could hinder the exploration of alternative cognitive models, potentially stalling progress in cognitive neuroscience (Colombo et al., 2021). Furthermore, while the theory offers a cohesive framework for understanding mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia (Smith et al., 2020; Kube et al., 2020), it remains unclear how these predictive mechanisms vary across different individuals and contexts. Future research should aim to empirically validate the predictive brain theory and explore its applicability in diverse therapeutic settings. Investigating how individual differences and specific disorders influence predictive processes can provide deeper insights into personalized therapeutic interventions. Additionally, integrating predictive coding with other cognitive models may yield a more comprehensive understanding of brain function and its implications for mental health.

References

Bellfy, L., & Kwapis, J. L. (2020). Molecular mechanisms of reconsolidation-dependent memory updating.International Journal of Molecular Sciences,21(18), 6580-. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186580Ecker, B., & Bridges, S. K. (2020). How the science of memory reconsolidation advances the effectiveness and unification of psychotherapy.Clinical Social Work Journal,48(3), 287300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-020-00754-zFriston, K. (2012). The history of the future of the Bayesian brain. NeuroImage (Orlando, Fla.), 62(2), 12301233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.004Forget, M., & Le Pertel, N. (2024). Enhancing neuroplasticity and promoting brain health at work: The role of learning and memory in workplace performance. InLearning and Memory-From Molecules and Cells to Mind and Behavior. IntechOpen. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1002894

Hinton, P. (2017). Implicit stereotypes and the predictive brain: cognition and culture in biased person perception. Palgrave Commun 3, 17086. https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2017.86Lea, H. (2022). Neuroplasticity; the mechanisms and implications for treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.Archives of Clinical Psychiatry,49(4).

Otared, N., Zafarmand, M., Nweke, G. E., & Chinwendu, N. P. (2024). Modern Neuroscience and Psychotherapy: Opportunities for Integration-Review. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews

Raut, S. B., Canales, J. J., Ravindran, M., Eri, R., Benedek, D. M., Ursano, R. J., & Johnson, L. R. (2022). Effects of propranolol on the modification of trauma memory reconsolidation in PTSD patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Journal of Psychiatric Research,150, 246256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.03.045Raut, S. B., Marathe, P. A., van Eijk, L., Eri, R., Ravindran, M., Benedek, D. M., Ursano, R. J., Canales, J. J., & Johnson, L. R. (2022). Diverse therapeutic developments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicate common mechanisms of memory modulation.Pharmacology & Therapeutics (Oxford),239, 108195108195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108195Roullet, P., Vaiva, G., Vry, E., Bourcier, A., Yrondi, A., Dupuch, L., Lamy, P., Thalamas, C., Jasse, L., El Hage, W., & Birmes, P. (2021). Traumatic memory reactivation with or without propranolol for PTSD and comorbid MD symptoms: a randomised clinical trial.Neuropsychopharmacology (New York, N.Y.),46(9), 16431649. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-021-00984-wShrestha, P., & Klann, E. (2022). Spatiotemporally resolved protein synthesis as a molecular framework for memory consolidation.Trends in Neurosciences (Regular Ed.),45(4), 297311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2022.01.004Steffen, P. R., Hedges, D., & Matheson, R. (2022). The brain is adaptive not triune: How the brain responds to threat, challenge, and change.Frontiers in Psychiatry,13, 802606802606. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.802606Zhang, Y. (2024). Advances in social cognitive and affective neuroscience: Ten Highly Cited Articles Published in Brain Sciences in 2022-2023.Brain Sciences,14(5), 460-. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050460Zotey, V., Andhale, A., Shegekar, T., & Juganavar, A. (2023). Adaptive neuroplasticity in brain injury recovery: strategies and insights.Curus (Palo Alto, CA),15(9), e45873e45873. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.45873