SWRK5004 Assessment 1 Case Study Analysis - Report Template

SWRK5004 Assessment 1 Case Study Analysis - Report Template

General notes on use of this template:

This assessment must be written in a basic report format using only the headings provided. Features typically included in more detailed reports (eg table of contents, diagrams, recommendations etc) are not required.

Use the main (numbered) headings and associated word limit recommendations to guide the format and content of your report.

Additional bullet points under the numbered headings are only provided to give further direction to required/expected content. These should not be copied or included in your submitted report

Introduction and purpose (150 words approx.)

Provide an introduction that identifies the purpose of the report and outlines the main content

briefly summarise key details of the case study

Case analysis discourses and their implications (600 words approx.)

Analyse the case from the perspective of two discourses, identifying key contrasts and examples of potential implications for practice (the two discourses must comprise one dominant and one psychological, sociological or alternative discourse as per Healy, 2014).

Theoretical considerations (600 words approx.)

Discuss one social work practice theory (from within those covered in the unit content), outlining its key elements and identifying its applicability to the case

Conclusion (150 words approx.)

Provide a brief conclusion that summarises your analysis and draws together the discursive and theoretical insights

References

Provide reference list containing full references for all sources used in your report (minimum of 5 references)

APA 7 format

Module overview

In this module, we will analyse the discourses that influence the social context in which social work operates. We will also further examine two key theories informing social work practice that were introduced in the unit 'SWRK5001' - systems and critical theories.

By the end of this module you will be able to:

discuss discourses influencing social work practice

discuss systems and critical theories

apply knowledge of discourses and social work theories to a case study

Discourse and social work

Discourses are defined as "the sets of language practices that shape our thoughts, actions and even our identities" (Healy 2014, p. 3). As we remember from our Social Work Foundation for Practice unit in Y1, discourse is informed by language and is particularly powerful in how we teach, think and practice social work. It involves an understanding of how the ways we talk about the world, that is, our frameworks for understanding our social worlds, actually also construct it. (Fook, 2016 p.77).

Some definitions are offered below:

Discourse refers to how we think and communicate about people, things, the social organization of society, and the relationships among and between all three. Discourse typically emerges out of social institutions like media and politics (among others), and by virtue of giving structure and order to language and thought, it structures and orders our lives, relationships with others, and society. It thus shapes what we are able to think and know any point in time. In this sense, sociologists frame discourse as a productive force because it shapes our thoughts, ideas, beliefs, values, identities, interactions with others, and our behavior. In doing so it produces much of what occurs within us and within society (Cole, 2019).

Coles (2019) continues:

The power of discourse lies in its ability to provide legitimacy for certain kinds of knowledge while undermining others; and, in its ability to create subject positions, and, to turn people into objects that that can be controlled. For example, the dominant discourse on immigration that comes out of institutions like law enforcement and the legal system is given legitimacy and superiority by their roots in the state. Mainstream media typically adopt the dominant state-sanctioned discourse and showcases it by giving airtime and print space to authority figures from those institutions.

In social work, the attention given to discourses and their effects on individuals and society reflects the influence of language and knowledge. An understanding of discourse (and the ability to critically analyse discourse) therefore provides an important tool within a social workers knowledge base. Social work practice is therefore shaped by various competing discourses. Awareness and understanding of these discourses enables social workers to:

think critically about various discourses and their influences

consider the relationships between discourse and theory

incorporate understanding of discourse and theory into our knowledge base

draw from this knowledge base in our practice

Discourse in social work gives "structure and order to language and thought, it (discourse) structures and orders our lives, relationships with others, and society" (Cole, 2019).

So, discourse is productive in the sense that it produces (causes or brings about) certain effects on people and society. From a social work perspective, many of these effects can be considered problematic or potentially harmful.

As Cole (2019) argues,

discourse, power and knowledge are intimately connected, and work together to create hierarchies. Some discourses come to dominate the mainstream (dominant discourses), and are considered truthful, normal and right while others are marginalized and stigmatized, and considered wrong, extreme, and even dangerous

For example, historically psychological discourses have dominated our understanding and responses to mental illness, while legal discourses have dominated understanding and responses to juvenile crime. Other competing discourses (eg sociological, citizen-rights) have been subjugated or marginalised.

This is a key reason why it is important to develop an understanding of how certain discourses (and particularly dominant discourses) shape social work practice contexts bringing with them preferred knowledge and power. These in turn can influence how we interpret and respond to the various situations that service users encounter (ie how we assess and intervene).

Discourses shaping Social Work practice

Healy (2014. p.4) states:

The relationship between discourses and social work practice is dynamic, in the sense that discourses profoundly shape social work practice, yet social workers can also actively use and contest the discourses that influence their practice domains. To do so requires that we understand them. At a minimum, discourse analysis can help us to understand, and actively use, the concepts that shape our institutional environments and influence our professional purpose. From a discourse perspective, it is vital that social workers understand and use the language practices that dominate practice contexts if they want to maximize the opportunities for their own and clients perspectives to be recognized in these contexts.

Healy (2014) identifies eight discourses that have been influential in shaping social work practice. These are separated into three main categories:

1. Biomedical, legal and neoclassical economics/new public management discourses:

These are thedominant discourses that have shaped the institutional context of social work (see Healy, 2014 Ch. 3)

2. Behavioural and social science discourses:

These provide the psychological and sociological knowledge base that informs much of social work practice (see Healy, 2014 Ch. 4)

3. Citizen rights, religious/spiritual and environmental discourses:

These are the alternative discourses that also influence our purpose and practice (see Healy, 2014 Ch. 5)

Activity Reading 1.1

Healy, K. (2014).Discourses shaping contextsSocial work theories in context: Creating frameworks for practice.Palgrave Macmillan.

Read Part 2 (pages 33-108 which incoporates chapters 3, 4 & 5) to familiarise yourself with the main discourses shaping social work practice. For assessment 1, you will discuss two of these discourses (one 'dominant' and one other) and apply them to the case study.

As you read the chapters, note down your key insights and any questions. You can then:

share these with peers in the discussion board

bring them to the live workshop in week 1 for discussion and clarification (refer to announcement for date/time of session)

Activity: Practice Questions

Please readCole's articlefor more context on discourses and then attempt the activity below.

Cole's article provides examples of discourses operating in the United States. Now consider the discourse in Australia that influence people's understanding about the following topics. You might find it useful to start by doing a google search to find examples of media articles and the language used to describe the following groups of people.Remember, language produces discourses (or, discourses are produced and re-produced through language).

Social work and theory

In this and the next module, you will examine some of the main theories that inform social work practice. You may be familiar with some of them from previous units. While the ideas may be familiar, you will need to think further about how they can be applied in direct social work practice. You need enough information about these theories to be able to practice. You will also need to reflect on the messiness of the real world, and be comfortable with the fact that people and events do not always fit into neat theories. You will need to be able to draw on different theories for different situations and for working in different organisational contexts.

As Harms and Connolly (2019) say:

Social workers draw upon a range of theoretical perspectives in their work. Using theory helps to understand and make sense of what is, in reality, a complex human world.

As discussed in Social Work Foundations for Practice, theory explains things what is happening, how and why. However, as we have established in other units so far in this course, social work theories are constantly changing and evolving, because social phenomena are always changing. Theories must reflect the value base of our profession and the specific nature of our work.

Theories influence our perspective on the critical issues within a situation (eg our problem conceptualisation, assessment etc), and they inform our actions in response (what we do and dont do within our interventions). Along with other forms of knowledge (eg factual, procedural, self-knowledge and practice wisdom), theories help us make sense of what is happening and guide our responses to situations.

Below we consider two broad and highly influential theories used in social work - systems and critical theories. We will then examine additional practice theories in Module 2.

Systems theory

You may be familiar with the saying the whole is more than the sum of its parts. This thinking fits with systems theory. Systems theory reminds us to look at theinteractionsbetween things as well as the things themselves. Systems theory is often described as the dominant theoretical perspective in social work and human services practice. It has a person-in-environment perspective and a dual focus on the person and their environment. Beyond biological influence, individuals are constantly in a reciprocal relational dance with their environment. This brings into perspective the old adage of "nature vs nurture". Essentially, when applying systems theory as social workers, we look for whatinfluenceswhat, rather than whatcauseswhat.

Levinson (2017) explains how systems theory helps us to consider a person's situation within a broader context:

The person in environment perspective held by social workers helps us recognize the role that adversity might play in the formation of maladaptive coping patterns. Socialworkers are trained to avoid over pathologizing behavior and to appreciate the complex nexus between poverty, oppression, and trauma (p.105).

Systems perspectives are also reflected in the description of social work found in our Code of Ethics (AASW, 2020):

the social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing. Utilising theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments.

Systems perspectives underpin knowledge development in the social work profession. Some social work theorists argue that recognition of the systemic character of human problems and the need for intervention to improve the interaction between the client and their broader environment distinguishes social work from other human service professions (Healy, 2014 p. 115).

3 waves of systems theory influencing social work:

1. General systems theory (GST).This was the first wave of systems theory which reflected a shift away from the narrowly individualistic focus of psychoanalytic and other behavioral theories. Its key concepts include; transaction, homeostasis, entropy, equifinality and feedback See image below.

2. Ecosystems theories .This is the 2nd wave of systems theory and probably the one which you are most familiar with. This wave brings an ecological view to social work. Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory uses ecology as an analogy to show transactions within and across systems from a micro, meso, exo and macro perspective (eg Bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory of child development). In an ecosystem perspective, the main goal is to collect adequate data about a situation to inform analysis/assessment of the impact of multiple systems on the service users situation. See the image below

3. Complex systems theories. This is the third wave of systems theory which draws on complexity theory. It is characterised by non-linearity of effects (a linear relationship shows basic cause and effect. E.g. unemployment leads to crime). In non- linear relationships, other sets of variables are considered and not just the end result which is crime. It argues that in complex systems patterns are characterised by complex, rather than random behaviour. In social work, this 'third wave' of systems theory helps us to better understand complex social problems like homelessness and how it results from the interaction of multiple economic (eg housing markets), political (inadequate policies), cultural (eg 'the great Australian dream' of home ownership) and individual factors (eg lack of supports). It similarly helps us to consider the relationships between various complex problems (eg the relationship between homelessness and family violence, or mental health). Like the earlier waves of systems theory, it therefore helps us to consider how a person's 'problems' are not soley the result of individual factors. When applied in a direct practice context, this then encourages us to recognise when a broader range of intereventions might be needed to assist the person.

Activity: Watch and Reflect

Reflect on the following.

What is the difference between open and closed systems?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of systems theory

Activity Reading 1.2

Healy, K. (2014). Chapter 6: Three waves of systems theories. In Social Work Theories in Context: Creating Frameworks for Practice. Palgrave Macmillan.

Read the chapter in the Healy text and then do the activity below. Once you have done that, you might like to then have a go at applying systems theory to the case study for Assessment 1.

Activity: Case study practice

Consider carefully the Hayden family case study in your prescribed text by Healy (2014 pp194-5).

Critical theories

As you learnt previously in the Foundations unit, critical theory is related to structural and other more radical forms of social work theory. These share a common objective to dismantle colonialist, patriarchal, and capitalist domination in order to build a welfare state that is ultimately just and anti-oppressive. This is reflected by Healys (2014 p. 183) statement that:

"In its broadest sense, critical social work is concerned with the analysis and transformation of power relations at every level of social work practice".

It can be somewhat challenging for students to develop a clear understanding of the similarities and differences between these strands of theory a task that is made more complicated by the different and inconsistent use of terms within various texts (so if this is you I can assure you that you are not alone!). Healy (2014 p. 183) acknowledges this in chapter nine of your textbook when describing how modern forms of critical social work are grounded primarily in modernist ideas about power and identity. Within these modernist ideas, Marxist notions of economic inequality and class identity are particularly prominent. In contrast, morecontemporaryforms of critical theory are also influenced by postmodern ideas about power, oppression, discourse and identity (as Healy discusses in Chapter 10). Examples of more contemporary critical theories include feminist, intersectional, post-colonial, anti-racists, queer, and social constructionism.

In the contemporary context therefore, the term critical theory more commonly refers to a collection of theoretical perspectives that critique social injustice from a variety of perspectives, including racism, ethnocentrism, the patriarchy, ableism, and others. It does not focus on a singular issue (eg class inequality), rather it identifies and seeks to challenge multiple and intersecting sources of inequality and oppressiongender, economic, cultural, sexual and so on. In rejecting dominant paradigms and discourses, critical theories assume that existing oppressive structures are unjust and changeable, giving them great potential to influence social justice practice. Critical theories help define social justice, as well as identify sources of oppression that are barriers to achieving it. By doing so, they help develop understandings that can be used by change agents (including social workers) to identify specific issues that must be tackled to effectively promote social justice (Chan, 2018).

When applied in social work, one of the key implications of critical theory is that oppression and disempowerment within the wider social environment are recognised as the primary causes of individual difficulty. The primary focus of change is, therefore, the wider social, structural and cultural context, rather than the individual. Practice methods informed by critical theory range from therapeutic counselling to social action and advocacy strategies (Harms, 2015 p. 61). As we will explore further in module two, anti-oppressive practice is a particularly influential form of social work practice that draws on this more contemporary version of critical theory.

Stemming from the above theoretical influences, critical social work practice is underpinned by three key principles:

A recognition that large scale social processes, particularly those associated with class, race and gender contribute fundamentally to the personal and social issues social workers encounter in their practice;

The need to adopt a self reflexive and critical stance to the often contradictory effects of social work practice and social policies;

A commitment to co-participatory rather than authoritarian practice relations. This involves social workers, service users and other like-minded collaborators within communities working in partnership to address both the causes and consequences of inequality and oppression

This articleoffers a good summary of critical social work and is recommended for students interested in further reading.

Activity: Watch this video

Watch this tedtalk by Ms. Stella Young and note the discourse and language used in disability practice and how it impacts people living with a disability. She also critiques the social and cultural structures which continue to disable her and prevent her full participation in the community. As you watch the video, think about the relationship between critical theory and dominant discourses. This will provide you with some insights that you can apply to the Assessment 1 task.

References

Chan, W. W. (2018). Solidarity and Heart - The Development of Structural Social Work: A Critical Analysis. Critical Social Work, 19 (1).

Cole, N. L (2019). Introduction to Discourse in Sociology. https://www.thoughtco.com/discourse-definition-3026070

Gray, M., & Webb, S. A. (2013). Critical social work.Social work theories and methods, 99-109.

Harms, L., & Connolly, M. (2019).Social work: from theory to practice. Cambridge University Press.

Harms, L. (2015). Working with people : Communication skills for reflective practice. Oxford University Press

Healy, K. (2014).Social work theories in context: Creating frameworks for practice. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Levenson, J. (2017). Trauma-informed social work practice.Social work,62(2), 105-113.

Module overview

This module examines a range of influential theories that are applied in many areas of contemporary social work practice. You may recognise some of these theories from the 'Foundations' unit, however through this module you will further develop your understanding of these theories and also begin to apply them to case studies depicting 'real world' practice scenarios. During the residentials, you will also develop your confidence and capacity to use theory to inform your clinical skills during various role-play activities. The knowledge gained through this module will therefore assist with both of the assessment tasks.

By the end of this module you will be able to:

discuss key theories used in direct social work practice

compare and contrast theories to consider their similarities, differences and appropriate uses

apply knowledge theoretical knowledge to a case study

demonstrate use of theory during clinical skills activities

To prepare for the first assessment, students are encouraged to choose one of the theories presented below and then undertake further reading from the Healy text, MyReadings and other books/journal articles. This additional reading will build your knowledge of the chosen theory so you can then apply it to the assessment 1 case study.

(Note: in addition to the theories discussed in this and the previous module, students may also choose to apply 'trauma theory' in their responses to assessment 1. Please refer to the content and module 5 for further guidance)

Solution focused and Strengths based approaches

In this section, we focus on the strengths perspective and solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT). These approaches have relatively similar theoretical foundations and some common features. Both originally emerged in mental health services and in response to dominant psy discourses perspectives, especially honing in on the ideas of psychological resilience and post-traumatic growth. The application of these theoretical aspects will be explored further in the residential.

According to Healy (2014) both approaches:

Recognize and focus on the strengths and capacities of service users to respond to their problems

View service provision as a mutual learning process for service provider and service user

Seek to depersonalize service users problems, that is, the person is not the problem, rather, the problem is the problem

Explore future possibilities rather than examine the past.

1) Solution-focused approaches

Solution focused approaches are founded on the assumptions that there are exceptions to every problem and through examining these exceptions and having a clear vision of a preferred future, client and social worker, together, can generate ides for solutions. This approach asserts that there are significant advantages in focusing on the positive and on solutions for the future and that focusing on strengths and solution-talk will increase the likelihood of satisfactory outcomes.

A core principle of SFBT is that service users already possess the knowledge and skill they need to address the problems they face. Utilizing what clients bring with them to help them meet their needs in such a way that they can make satisfactory lives for themselves is what solution focused approach is about. The role of the social worker is that of assisting the client to uncover these capacities and apply them to the challenging issues at hand. As Healy (2014 p.174) describes:

Change is achieved in several ways. The first is by focusing on solutions not problems.... This involves a radical reorientation of social work practice away from problem-saturated approaches. The second way change is achieved is by creatingan expectation of, and increased sensitivity to the presence of, change. This involves exploring with the service user several positive aspects of their situation, including what they want to continue in their current situation, what triumphs they are already having over the challenges they are facing, and their hopes and dreams for the future

Techniques of SFBT depend on the usage of a range of questioning strategies that assist to create an expectation of change. These include:

i)Asking the miracle question-

Suppose that while you are sleeping tonight and the entire house is quiet, a miracle happens. The miracle is that the problem which brought you here is solved. So, when you wake up tomorrow morning, what will be different that will tell you that a miracle has happened and the problem which brought you here is solved?

ii) Asking the exception questions -Exception questions provide clients with the opportunity to identify times when things have been different for them.

For example,Tell me about times when you dont get angry; Tell when you felt happy in your relationship

iii) Asking scaling questions -Scaling questions invite clients to perceive their problem on a continuum. Scaling questions ask clients to consider their position on a scale (usually from 1 to 10, with one being the least desirable situation and 10 being the most desirable)

For example:On a scale of 0-10 tell me the level of your emotional pain at the moment?...What needs to happen before you can move from a 4 to a 6?

iv) Asking presupposing change questions-These are questions that presuppose change can be useful in assisting clients to recognize such changes- however small.

For example;Whats different/ better since the last time we talked?

2) Strengths based approaches

One of the primary reasons that strengths based approaches remain so influential in social work is because they reject the pathologising of clients (that often results from dominant discourses) and insteadfocus onclients' strengths and resilience and their hopes and dreams for the future. They alsoseek to de-personalise users problems. i.e. the person is not the problem rather- the problem is the problem.

A strengths perspective is a strategy for seeing; a way to learn to recognize and use what is already available to them [the service user]. The professional person thus becomes a translator who helps people see that they already possess much of what they need to proceed on their chosen path (Weick et al., 1989, p. 354, as cited in Healy, 2014)

A strengths approach therefore assumes that people have the ability to determine and decide what is good for them and a resilience framework shifts perspective from viewing distressed families/individuals as damaged to seeing them as challenged, affirming their potential for repair and growth.

Drawing on Healy (2014 pp166-173), the following can be regarded as the 'core assumptions and principles' of the strength-based approach:

Assume a hopeful, optimistic attitude- Every human being is worthy of being hopeful about- we should challenge the pathological labelling of our clients

Separate the individual from the problem E.g. avoid language like "wheelchair bound" rather say, a person who uses a wheelchair. For most people who use wheelchairs, they see them as an extension of their bodies. Better still, ask people how they want to be referred as..

Focus on assets not deficits- We dont deny the reality of peoples challenges but we must identify the assets so we can maximize them while minimizing the deficits. (personal capabilities and social networks)

Identify intrinsic strengths eg. Its very brave of you to come here today to seek help

Collaborate with the client- the relationship and the partnership is paramount. This is a creative process that engages all understandings of emotional and spiritual perspectives. Use the phrase we rather than I

Pay attention to how you ask questions. When interviewing people we should try to avoid the word why to start a question, and instead use how, who, what, when, or where, as these are less accusatory. Framing questions with words like tell me, say more, and describe is good practiceEg Tell me about what are your hopes, visions, and aspirations are?

Pay more attention to language. Questions phrased with an intent, such as do you struggle with? invite a statement of need from the service user, while those phrased to show 'how they have managed to date suggest an intrinsic strength Eg How have you managed to cope with all this and keep going?

Propose long term empowerment strategy- recognising, affirming peoples abilities to better their lives

Help to create community around the client to reduce over-reliance- Social support and community is important for achieving resilience and enhancing quality of life

Strengths-based practitioners must actively listen to the clients account of their situation. A strengths approach to listening requires us to be on the lookout for signs of capacity and resourcefulness, rather than problems and deficits in service users lives. As Van Wormer (2001, p. 32) describes a strengths approach to listening:

Listening is the method; listening to the clients story, not passively, uncreatively, but with full attention to the rhythms and patterns, and then, when the time is right, observing, sharing, until through a mutual discovery, events can be seen in terms of some kind of whole. The challenge is to find themes of hope and courage and in so naming to reinforce them.

Consider the image below for perspective. Importantly, it identifies that to obtain positive outcomes (or desired results) 'individual strengths' also need to be supported by environmental strengths (ie resources that exist external to the person). A key role for the social worker applying this approach in practice, particularly in casework, is to not only to help harness the client's own strengths, but to link them with other resources and supports. This also provides an example of how strengths-based approach can be used in conjunction with other complementary approaches such as systems theory.

Activity Reading 2.1

Chapter 8: strengths and solution focused theories in Healy, K. (2014). Social work theories in context : Creating frameworks for practice. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Please read Chapter 8 and then answer the questions below. As you read, consider both the similarities and differences between strengths-based and solution-focussed approaches. We will explore this further during the residential.

Activity :Reflection

Problem solving approaches

Good examples of 'problem-solving' theories are task centred approaches and crisis interventions approaches. Crisis intervention is a vital part of social work. As a social worker you will be exposed to clients crises and will be involved with working through the resultant issues with the client. There is a great deal of literature outlining how to do task-centred work. You will be introduced to some of this literature here. There are certainly similarities between these approaches and some differences.

1) Task centred approach

Task-centred practice has long been a major focus in social work interventions. It can be known as problem solving, brief therapy, short-term or contract work. Task-centred practice focuses on actionable solutions to specific problems. It is active, direct and easily measurable. It has a clear emphasis on concrete problems and uses well specified sets of procedures. Debates ensue about if social work is about practical helping or is it about providing therapy? Either way, remember that this is an empowering practice, concentrating on what strengths clients have to change within a partnership with the social worker, within a very short contractual timeline. It is optimistic in its world-view, time limited and is a positive and practical way of dealing with problems. There are many different process models of how to do task-centred work.

Harms (2015, p. 244) describes six steps to practice in task-centred work:

1. Task selection-Having established an understanding of what is going on for your client, this step involves identifying a key task to address. It involves asking the question: What do you think you might be able to do about this problem?

2. Task agreement-This step involves talking about the possible solutions and then arriving at the task/s that you all think will be the most achievable.

3. Planning specifics of implementation- An implementation plan is then discussedhow, who, where, when and why are often important questions to explore throughout this phase

4. Establishing incentives and rationale-In this step, you look together at why the change should occurwhat are the motivations, and why is it necessary?

5. Anticipating obstacles-In this exploration, you turn the focus around from that above, to look at all the potential barriers to the successful achievement of the goal. Both inner-world and outer-world barriers are important to explore.

6. Simulated and guided practice-Talking through a process is importantthe techniques of rehearsal prepare us to put into practice new skills and help us to experience some of the potential new emotions we may experience in a situation. We can learn how we might react to a number of different dimensions in an experience

Healy (2014, pp. 142144) outlines eight practice principles relating to this very structured approach, which translate further into the skills you could use. They are:

seeking mutual clarity with service users; aiming for small achievements rather than large changes; focusing on the here and now; promoting collaboration between the social worker and service users; building client capacity for action; engaging in planned brevity; promoting systematic and structured approaches to intervention; and adopting a scientific approach to practice evaluation.

Remember, the major focus of task-centred work is on time-limited intervention that emphasises goal setting based around client definitions of the problem, small changes, collaboration, building client capacity for change, clear evaluation practices to assess achievements and movement toward goals.

To help you better understand how the task centred approach can be applied in practice, read the case study in Healy (2014 p. 145) about 'George and Flo' and work through the 'phases of intervention' outlined on pages 145-152.

2) Crisis Intervention

As Healy (2014 p.153) identifies, while 'crisis intervention' is often used as a general term in social work, it also refers to a distinctive practice theory oriented toward 'problem solving'. This approach recognises that crises are 'normal' and often inevitable aspects of human existence. When applying this approach, we are aiming to help the person to work through and resolve their particular crisis so they may return to functioning more optimally. Moreover, it also has a 'learning' focus in that with appropriate support, crises are regarded as providing opportunity for personal insight and growth. This learning can then be applied to assist the person work through future crises - and potentially not require as much or any professional support to do so.

Within this theory, a 'crisis' is considered to present when there is a threat to someones equilibrium and their usual coping mechanisms are overwhelmed. A crisis intervention is an immediate and short-term emergency response to mental, emotional, physical, and behavioural distress. Crisis interventions help to restore an individuals equilibrium to their biopsychosocial functioning and minimize the potential for long-term trauma or distress. Roberts (2005, p. 778; cited in Roberts & Ottens, 2005 p. 331), defines a "crisis" as: -

An acute disruption of psychological homeostasis in which one's usual coping mechanisms fail and there exists evidence of distress and functional impairment. The subjective reaction to a stressful life experience that compromises the individual's stability and ability to cope or function. The main cause of a crisis is an intensely stressful, traumatic, or hazardous event, but two other conditions are also necessary: (1) the individual's perception of the event as the cause of considerable upset and/or disruption; and (2) the individual's inability to resolve the disruption by previously used coping mechanisms. Crisis also refers to "an upset in the steady state." It often has five components: a hazardous or traumatic event, a vulnerable or unbalanced state, a precipitating factor, an active crisis state based on the person's perception, and the resolution of the crisis.

Many social work clients you work with will be in this situation. I would like you to remember that one event or situation may be a crisis for one person but not necessarily for another. It is the meaning attached to the event that is important to understand. In conceptualizing the process of crisis intervention, Roberts (2005) has identified seven critical stages through which clients typically pass on the road to crisis stabilization, resolution, and mastery. These stages, listed below, are essential, sequential, and sometimes overlapping in the process of crisis intervention: They are:

Activity Reading 2.2

Roberts, A & Ottens, A. (2005). The Seven-Stage Crisis Intervention Model: A Road Map to Goal Attainment, Problem Solving, and Crisis Resolution

Narrative theory

Harms (2015) writes that "narrative approaches place a major emphasis on the way in which an individual construct and relates the stories, and particularly the problem stories, of their life. This approach is grounded in the belief that meaning-making, through the formulation of narrative, is integral to well-being because it leads to an integrated inner state(pg. 60).A narrative approach recognises thatpeople often 'shape their stories according to how they locate their identityin their story. People create narratives and stories to make sense of their reality or their experiences. Narrative approaches follow clearly from the overarching premises of strengths- and solution-based practice.

Narrative approaches are also more politically oriented approaches, in that they focus on encouraging people to re-author the stories they live with so that the problem is the problem, not the person. Broader social and cultural narratives are also interrogated for their influence in peoples lives. Bearing witness to peoples experiences of adversity and suffering has been recognised throughout the trauma and grief literature as a critical process in recovery. It also means that the telling of stories has the power to bring about change at other levels, such as at program or policy levels (Harms, 2015 p.60)

When applying narrative perspectives, 'reality is expressed and structured through language, and socio order that regulates human behaviour and can be learned and changed as the fashion of the time requires. A narrative paradigm explores stories together with clients through in-depth conversations. In addition, there is a focus on the connection between the political and the personal. The social worker helps the client understand how the social structures surrounding the situation can influence both the clients and others views and attitudes and contribute to stress. Thus, it is recognised that here are oppressive effects of dominant narratives (which in turn, often develop from dominant discourses) and there is a need to deconstruct and reconstruct new stories with clients.This process "explores individuals understandings of their experience in the context of their everyday lives while simultaneously looking to the wider social/cultural resources on which people draw to help them make sense of their lives" (Mccormack, 2002, p.220).

Key principles and the process of intervention (see also Healy, 2014 pp 218-221)

1) Normalising/strengthening

When using this technique, the worker explores other challenges the client may have faced in the past. Normalization is generally used to help clients see their responses to problems not as pathological manifestations but as ordinary difficulties of life (OHanlon & Weiner-Davis, 1989, p. 93). The goal of this strategy is to pre-emptively depathologize client problems and the clients view of the problems

2) Deframing

De-framing is a strategy that works hand-in-hand with normalization. Generally speaking, deframing focuses on the process of deconstructing past or present embedded, non-functional beliefs. It begins that process by introducing uncertainty into the therapeutic conversation. e.g. asking, how did you come to that conclusion? What are the benefits of holding that belief?

3) Separating the person from the problem/ externalising

One of the main principles of narrative therapy is that the person is not the problem- the problem is the problem. Here we use the strategy of externalising conversations to separate the person and the problem. For example, we might rename problems or "unspeakable events" by giving them names.

Watch this brief video demonstrating how a counsellor uses objects to support the client to speak about their emotions:

4) Deconstruction

Deconstruction allows the client to analyze, expose and challenge assumptions by taking a situation apart so that we can see the elements of it, understanding it more clearly in this way. But it is more than this: it implies self reflexivity and becoming more aware of internalized manifestations that contribute to personal beliefs

5) Reconstructing

This process permits the client and the therapist to explore more empowering beliefs by bringing awareness to the story; thereby opening up new possibilities (Walsh, 2010). With awareness, the client has the power to re-author a new personal narrative for his/her story line which is known as reconstruction.

Healy (2012) discusses how the narrative approach shares some similar philosophies and principles to the strengths and solutions focused perspectives. They each reject dominant discourses and narratives, are future focused, and provide strategies and techniques for working with a focus on people's strengths and capacities. They are also often associated with brief interventions and can be extremely useful in a wide range of social work situations. Healy (2012 p.71) suggests that the social worker working within these frameworks asks;

What victories the client has had over the concern?

What is the client proud of in his or her life?

What resources are available to the client to assist in addressing the problems?

In the network of friends and family, who is supportive and affirming?

Healy goes on to outline two main themes that thread through the various techniques. These are;

The importance of separating the problem from the person, which involved externalising the problem by maybe giving the problem a name.

Imagining a future without the problem or with the problem not being so debilitating.

From a narrative approach, to answer these questions and realise the practice objectives, the social worker must focus on supporting the client to explore and reauthor their story.

Activity Reading 2.3

Healy, K. (2014). Chapter 10: Postmodern approaches to practice. In Social Work Theories in Context: Creating Frameworks for Practice. Palgrave MacMillan.

This chapter discusses narrative therapy as a key example of a post-modern theoretical approach. After reading the chapter, undertake the reflection activity below to help further develop your understanding of how narrative therapy and other postmodern approaches can be applied in practice.

Activity: Case study practice

Anti- oppressive theory

In module 1, we briefly identified anti-oppressive practice as one particularly influential form of critical social work theory. You were also introduced to some of the key ideas underpinning this approach in the 'Foundations' unit. This included consideration of how various forms of systematic oppression often translate into personal and intergenerational experiences of trauma. Let's now revisit some of these key principles and explore their application in social work practice in more detail.

Oppression is obviously a central concept and concern within this approach - but what does it mean? Oppression involves relations of domination that divide people into dominant or 'superior' groups and subordinate or inferior groups. These relations of domination consist of the systematic devaluing of the attributes and contributions of those deemed inferior, and their exclusion from the social resources available to those in the dominant group (Mullaly, 2002).

From this understanding of oppression, anti-oppressive theory explores the macro and micro levels ofoppression and emphasizes social justice and social change along more empowering and emancipatory lines. The complex and unequal role of "power" and "isms" are considered as an immense complication in anti-oppressive practice. As Harrison & Burke (2002) argue, anti-oppressive practice is a dynamic process based on the changing complex patterns of social relations. They add:

The complex nature of oppression is witnessed in the lives of people who are marginalised in this society. As social work practitioners, we have a moral, ethical and legal responsibility to challenge inequality and disadvantage. Historically, the profession, in attempting to understand, explain and offer solutions to the difficulties experienced by groups and individuals, has drawn from, among others, the disciplines of sociology, psychology, history, philosophy and politics. This multidisciplined theoretical framework, informed by anti-oppressive principles, provides social workers with a tool to understand and respond to the complexity of the experience of oppression.

Clifford (1995 p.65) explains that the term anti-oppressive is layered with meaning and is used to:

to indicate an explicit evaluative position that constructs social divisions (especially race, class, gender, disability, sexual orientation and age) as matters of broad social structure, at the same time as being personal and organisational issues. It looks at the use and abuse of power not only in relation to individual or organisational behaviour, which may be overtly, covertly or indirectly racist, classist, sexist and so on, but also in relation to broader social structures for example, the health, educational, political and economic, media and cultural systems and their routine provision of services and rewards for powerful groups at local as well as national and international levels. These factors impinge on peoples life stories in unique ways that have to be understood in their socio-historical complexity.

Consider the figure below and reflect on the various 'sites of oppression' that clients of social work services might commonly encounter.

An example of anti-oppressive theory: Thompson's PCS model

Thompson's (2012) PCS Model is a useful example of anti-oppressive theory as itexplains how oppression and discrimination operate at three different levels; the personal or psychological level, the cultural level and the structural level, with each interacting and influencing the other to maintain power relationships . The PCS Model explains how personal beliefs, cultural norms and structural institutions all contribute to oppression within society.

Personal (P) Level:This is concerned with an individuals lived experiences. The P is located in the middle of the diagram, because the individual has their beliefs and ideas supported through two other levels

Cultural (C) Level: This analysis relates to the shared values or commonalties of oppression. For example, oppressive cultural norms about gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality or economic position

Structural (S) Level:This analysis demonstrates how oppression is sewn into the fabric of society through institutions that support both cultural norms and personal beliefs. Some institutions such as sections of the media, religion and the government can cement the beliefs.

I recognising these intersecting aspects of oppression, anti-oppressive practice therefore is concerned with:

social difference-The disparities of power between the dominant and dominated social groups. The major divisions are described in terms of race, gender, class, sexual preference, disability and age

Linking the personal and the political -the individuals life situation is viewed in relation to social systems such as the family, peer groups, organisations and communities.

Power-power is seen to operate at the personal and structural levels. It is influenced by social, cultural, economic and psychological factors

Historical and geographical location-Individual life experiences and events are placed within a specific time and place, E.g. The history of colonialism, slavery influences the following generations. One location also matters e.g. Global south and North.

Reflexivity- continual consideration of how values, social difference and power affect the interactions between individuals and their lives

Key principles of anti-oppressive practice

According to Healy (2014 pp. 196-200) these are:

Critical reflection on self in practice (incl. recognition of own experiences with oppression, privilege, power etc and its potential influence on practice)

Critical assessment of service users experiences of oppression (involving recognition of various experiences/impacts of oppression and their intersection)

Empowering service users (focusing on interpersonal, system, cultural and structural levels)

Working in partnership (sharing power, commitment to collaboration, maximizing client self-determination)

Minimal intervention (particularly relevant but challenging in statutory settings; minimize restrictions on service-users autonomy and oppressive potential of social work interventions)

Activity: reading 2.5

Read pages 190-204 (in chapter 9) of the Healy text and work through the practice exercises associated with the 'Hayden family' case study. This activity will help you to build your understanding of how the anti-oppressive approach can be practiced.

Activity: Watch this video

Watch this video and then reflect on the relationship between anti-oppressive theory and the concept of 'intersectionality'

References

Harms. (2005).Understanding human development: a multidimensional approach. Oxford University Press.

Harms, L. (2015).Working with people : Communication skills for reflective practice. Oxford University Press

Healy, K. (2012).Social work methods and skills: The essential foundations of practice. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Healy, K. (2014).Social work theories in context: creating frameworks for practice(2nd edition.). Palgrave Macmillan.

Roberts, A & Ottens, A. (2005). The Seven-Stage Crisis Intervention Model: A Road Map to Goal Attainment, Problem Solving, and Crisis Resolution

Thompson, N. (2012).Anti-discriminatory Practice. Palgrave McMillan.

HYPERLINK "https://learn.scu.edu.au/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp?course_id=_146371_1&content_id=_5231515_1" o "Module 1: Social Work Theory I: Discourse and Theory"