University of Strathclyde

University of Strathclyde

Department of Computer and Information Sciences

Smartphone Security Awareness: Knowledge, Experience, and Behaviour

A MIXED METHODS STUDY OF STUDENTS COMMUNITY

By

Najla Etaher

Department of Computer and Information Sciences University of Strathclyde

A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

20232DECLARATIONThis thesis is the result of the authors original research. It has been composed by the author and has not been previously submitted for examination which has led to the award of a degree.

The copyright of this thesis belongs to the author under the terms of the United Kingdom Copyright Acts as qualified by the University of Strathclyde Regulation 3.50. Due acknowledgement must always be made of the use of any material contained in, or derived from, this thesis.

Signed: Najla Etaher

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSPUBLICATION LISTThe following articles have been presented and published in scientific journals or conferences proceedings based upon the research of this thesis.

CONFERENCE AND WORKSHOP PUBLICATIONS and POSTERS

Etaher, N. and Weir, G.R., 2016, June. Understanding childrens mobile device usage. In 2016 IEEE International Conference on Cybercrime and Computer Forensic (ICCCF) (pp. 1-7). IEEE.

Etaher, N., Weir, G.R. and Alazab, M., 2015, August. From Zeus to zitmo: Trends in banking malware. In 2015 IEEE Trustcom/BigDataSE/ISPA (Vol. 1, pp. 1386-1391). IEEE. IEEE Xplore Full-Text PDF:Etaher, N. and Weir, G., 2014, June. Understanding the threat of banking malware. In Cyberforensics 2014-International Conference on Cybercrime, Security & Digital Forensics (pp. 73-80).

AbstractWith the advances in technology, there was an increase in the adoption of smartphones with the available apps which may put smartphone users at potential risk as many of the apps may breach their privacy. However, previous studies raised the concern about low awareness, limited information about the attitude/ experience of smartphone users, as well as a lack of understanding of the behaviour of smartphone users, and information privacy which introduce another type of information security threat and vulnerabilities. This study was conducted to identify factors that could influence smartphone users security awareness by reflecting on their behaviour that may expose them to some online risks which allow for gaining an understanding of how smartphone users as a whole use their devices.

The present study employed a mixed-methods approach to investigate the smartphone users security awareness: knowledge, experience, and behaviour and risks associated with it. 346 smartphone users (12-35 years old) took part in the quantitative study from both school and university, while 18 participants took part in face-to-face semi-structured interviews from the University of Strathclyde as part of the qualitative study.

This research identified the influence of demographic factors (age, gender, and level of education) on smartphone users security awareness and helped to indicate factors that may affect their behaviour which in its turn may expose them to malware risk. In addition to that, the findings were used to provide some recommendations that could improve the security awareness of smartphone users.

The study contributes to the novelty in being -up to the researchers knowledge- the first to investigate smartphone security in both school and university contexts in Scotland in the UK. Its originality extends to investigating both high-level education groups of university students and low-level pupils from schools, for users aged 12-35 years old by different demographics.

Smartphone users lack knowledge in security awareness in adopting Secsoft, and their behaviour was risky in keeping personal information on their smartphone and not protecting their devices with a protection mechanism; however, they showed a better awareness in turning off their location, or not sharing personal data with strangers, and when considering some criteria before installing apps, and may be due to their previous experience, liked losing a phone or had it stolen. Overall smartphone users were exposed to risk in their everyday life as they are constantly and automatically connected to the internet and are most likely to experience security risks. Differences were found within the demographic factors such as gender, age, and level of education in taking steps to keep themselves safe from online risks and threats, and no significant results were found in some users knowledge, experience, and behaviour.

This study recommends that platform designers and app developers should take further steps to help users preserve their security and their privacy. Smartphones come in different shapes and sizes, and users come from various demographics, technological knowledge, preferences, and level of education. As a result, platform designers must consider these variances and decreases the risks and behaviours associated with smartphone users.

This research identified the influence of demographic factors (age, gender, and level of education) on smartphone users security awareness and helped to indicate factors that may affect users security awareness that may affect their behaviour which in its turn may expose them to malware risk. In addition to that, the findings were used to provide some recommendations that could improve the security awareness of smartphone users and specifically young age users.

Nonetheless, the studys conclusion will provide some key information that may be valuable in improving knowledge of smartphone use-related information security behaviours. Such information might assist in the development of suitable strategies and policies.

TABLE OF CONTENTSContents

TOC o "1-2" h z u 1DECLARATION PAGEREF _Toc119000838 h II2ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PAGEREF _Toc119000839 h III3PUBLICATION LIST PAGEREF _Toc119000840 h IV4Abstract PAGEREF _Toc119000841 h V5TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGEREF _Toc119000842 h VII6List of Tables PAGEREF _Toc119000843 h IX7List of Figures PAGEREF _Toc119000844 h XII8List of Abbreviations PAGEREF _Toc119000845 h XIII1Chapter 1: Introduction and Study Motivation PAGEREF _Toc119000846 h 151.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000847 h 151.2Motivation and Background context of the study PAGEREF _Toc119000848 h 171.3Study Aim PAGEREF _Toc119000849 h 191.4Research Questions PAGEREF _Toc119000850 h 201.5Significance of the study PAGEREF _Toc119000851 h 201.6Contribution of the study PAGEREF _Toc119000852 h 211.7Definition of terms PAGEREF _Toc119000853 h 221.8Thesis Structure PAGEREF _Toc119000854 h 232Chapter 2: Related Work PAGEREF _Toc119000855 h 252.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000856 h 252.2Smartphones PAGEREF _Toc119000857 h 252.3Information Security (InfoSec) PAGEREF _Toc119000858 h 292.4Security awareness: knowledge, attitude, experience, and behaviour among smartphone users PAGEREF _Toc119000859 h 312.5Smartphone problems PAGEREF _Toc119000860 h 402.6Security and privacy risks PAGEREF _Toc119000861 h 412.7Factors that influence smartphone usage PAGEREF _Toc119000862 h 432.8Research Gap PAGEREF _Toc119000863 h 482.9Summary PAGEREF _Toc119000864 h 493Chapter 3: Methodology PAGEREF _Toc119000865 h 503.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000866 h 503.2Research design PAGEREF _Toc119000867 h 503.3Research Methodology PAGEREF _Toc119000868 h 513.4Mixed-Methods approach PAGEREF _Toc119000869 h 523.5The rationale for research methodology PAGEREF _Toc119000870 h 533.6Benefits of Mixed-Methods Research PAGEREF _Toc119000871 h 563.7Example of methodology used in previous studies PAGEREF _Toc119000872 h 583.8Data collection instruments PAGEREF _Toc119000873 h 593.9Quantitative and Qualitative Ethical Approval PAGEREF _Toc119000874 h 773.10Summary PAGEREF _Toc119000875 h 774Chapter 4: Quantitative Results PAGEREF _Toc119000876 h 794.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000877 h 794.2Descriptive Analysis PAGEREF _Toc119000878 h 794.3Reliability PAGEREF _Toc119000879 h 794.4Normality Test PAGEREF _Toc119000880 h 794.5Demographic Characteristics of the Sample PAGEREF _Toc119000881 h 804.6Results (1 and 2): Descriptive findings and non-parametric tests results PAGEREF _Toc119000882 h 814.6.1Statistical PAGEREF _Toc119000883 h 814.7Results (3): Factor analysis PAGEREF _Toc119000884 h 1274.8Summary PAGEREF _Toc119000885 h 1405Chapter 5: Qualitative Results PAGEREF _Toc119000886 h 1445.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000887 h 1445.2Interview Analysis PAGEREF _Toc119000888 h 1445.3Risk-related issues PAGEREF _Toc119000889 h 1805.4Summary PAGEREF _Toc119000890 h 1886Chapter 6: Discussion PAGEREF _Toc119000891 h 1916.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000892 h 1916.2General information related to phone type and ownership of smartphones by gender, age, and level of education. PAGEREF _Toc119000893 h 1916.3Smartphone users knowledge PAGEREF _Toc119000894 h 1946.4Smartphone users experience PAGEREF _Toc119000895 h 2006.5Smartphone users behaviour PAGEREF _Toc119000896 h 2016.6Risky behaviour and attitudes that expose smartphone users to malware risk. PAGEREF _Toc119000897 h 2066.7Smartphone use as a possible risk factor PAGEREF _Toc119000898 h 2066.8Summary PAGEREF _Toc119000899 h 2287Chapter 7: Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc119000900 h 2297.1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc119000901 h 2297.2Thesis Contributions PAGEREF _Toc119000902 h 2297.3Strengths and weaknesses of this study PAGEREF _Toc119000903 h 2317.4Recommendation for smartphone users to reduce their exposure to cyber attacks PAGEREF _Toc119000904 h 2327.5Future Work PAGEREF _Toc119000905 h 2337.6Thesis conclusion PAGEREF _Toc119000906 h 2358References PAGEREF _Toc119000907 h 2399Appendixes PAGEREF _Toc119000908 h 255

List of Tables

TOC h z c "Table" Table 31: Methodology used in a representative range of previous studies PAGEREF _Toc118998350 h 59Table 32: Survey Responses PAGEREF _Toc118998351 h 63Table 33: Major Coding Differences Among Three Approaches to Content Analysis adopted from (James & Wooten, 2005). PAGEREF _Toc118998352 h 74Table 41: Participants profile PAGEREF _Toc118998353 h 80Table 42: Level of education by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998354 h 81Table 43: Phone type by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998355 h 81Table 44: Phone type by age PAGEREF _Toc118998356 h 82Table 45: Phone type by level of education PAGEREF _Toc118998357 h 83Table 46: OS by gender and level of education PAGEREF _Toc118998358 h 84Table 47: Users knowledge by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998359 h 84Table 48: Taking steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages PAGEREF _Toc118998360 h 86Table 49: Users awareness of whether their parents check their smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998361 h 87Table 410: What users think that their parents know about their smartphones usage PAGEREF _Toc118998362 h 87Table 411: Turning off GPS on their phones for safety PAGEREF _Toc118998363 h 88Table 412: Users knowledge by age group PAGEREF _Toc118998364 h 89Table 413:Users knowledge by level of education PAGEREF _Toc118998365 h 96Table 414: Clearing browsing histories PAGEREF _Toc118998366 h 97Table 415: Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge PAGEREF _Toc118998367 h 99Table 416: Users experience by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998368 h 103Table 417: Users experience by age PAGEREF _Toc118998369 h 105Table 418: Receiving any pictures from people in your contacts PAGEREF _Toc118998370 h 107Table 419: Received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally PAGEREF _Toc118998371 h 108Table 420: Users experience by level of education PAGEREF _Toc118998372 h 108Table 421: Photos of users stored on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998373 h 110Table 422: Photos of friends stored on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998374 h 110Table 423: Photos of family stored on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998375 h 111Table 424: Snapchat app installed on smart phone PAGEREF _Toc118998376 h 112Table 425: Users behaviour by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998377 h 113Table 426: Skype app installed on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998378 h 114Table 427: Users behaviour by age group PAGEREF _Toc118998379 h 115Table 428: Users behaviour by level of education PAGEREF _Toc118998380 h 121Table 429: Photos of family stored on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998381 h 124Table 430: Emails stored on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998382 h 124Table 431: Using smartphones for school-related activities PAGEREF _Toc118998383 h 125Table 432: WhatsApp installed on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998384 h 127Table 433: ooVoo app installed on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998385 h 127Table 434: KMO and Bartlett's Test results PAGEREF _Toc118998386 h 128Table 435: The Total Variance Explained Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings PAGEREF _Toc118998387 h 129Table 436: Name of New Factors with the Percentage of Variance PAGEREF _Toc118998388 h 131Table 437: Normality Test for the New Factors PAGEREF _Toc118998389 h 131Table 438: Significant results from Mann-Whitney Test by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998390 h 132Table 439: Kruskal-Wallis test by age groups PAGEREF _Toc118998391 h 137Table 440: Significant Mann-Whitney Test results by level of education PAGEREF _Toc118998392 h 140Table 51: Characteristics of participants PAGEREF _Toc118998393 h 145Table 52: Example of used apps by smartphone users in this study PAGEREF _Toc118998394 h 180Table 53: Risks associate to smartphone usage PAGEREF _Toc118998395 h 181Table 54: Risks associated with smartphone security PAGEREF _Toc118998396 h 182Table 55: Risks might encounter while installing apps on smartphones PAGEREF _Toc118998397 h 185Table 56: Risks associated with friendship on smartphones and sharing contents PAGEREF _Toc118998398 h 188Table 61: Summary Table for the affected factors by demographics PAGEREF _Toc118998399 h 205Table 91: Summary of the important studies related to this research PAGEREF _Toc118998400 h 255Table 93: Example of interview coding process, Participant No. 6 PAGEREF _Toc118998401 h 274Table 95: Mann-Whitney Test Grouping variable: gender PAGEREF _Toc118998402 h 301Table 96: Mann-Whitney Test, users awareness by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998403 h 301Table 97: Mann-Whitney Test, users experience of having a smartphone by gender PAGEREF _Toc118998404 h 301Table 98: Mann-Whitney Test Grouping variable: gender for users behaviour PAGEREF _Toc118998405 h 302Table 99: Smartphone devices ownership by age PAGEREF _Toc118998406 h 302Table 910: Users Awareness by age PAGEREF _Toc118998407 h 304Table 911: Users experience of smartphones by age PAGEREF _Toc118998408 h 306Table 912: Users behaviour by age PAGEREF _Toc118998409 h 308Table 913: Mann-Whitney Test by Academic level PAGEREF _Toc118998410 h 310Table 914: Mann-Whitney Test by level of education for users awareness PAGEREF _Toc118998411 h 311Table 915: Mann-Whitney Test by Level of Education for users experience PAGEREF _Toc118998412 h 312Table 916: Mann-Whitney Test by Academic level PAGEREF _Toc118998413 h 313Table 917: Communalities PAGEREF _Toc118998414 h 314Table 918: Rotated Component Matrix Component PAGEREF _Toc118998415 h 316

List of Figures

TOC h z c "Figure" Figure 21:Factors studied in this research (Bitton et al., 2018) PAGEREF _Toc119000909 h 32Figure 22: Factors studied in this research PAGEREF _Toc119000910 h 32Figure 23: Categorization of Smartphone Problems adopted from (Zaidi et al., 2016) PAGEREF _Toc119000911 h 40Figure 31: Mixed-method Design used in this study PAGEREF _Toc119000912 h 58Figure 32: Data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). PAGEREF _Toc119000913 h 76Figure 51: Most dominant factors that influence participants when they buy their smartphone PAGEREF _Toc119000914 h 150Figure 71: Aspects related to smartphone security awareness PAGEREF _Toc119000915 h 238

List of AbbreviationsAndroid: Android is an open source mobile operating system which is based on Linux OS kernel and launched by Google.

Apps: Applications.

Botnet: Robot network

DoS: Denial of Service

EULA: End-User License Agreement

GPS: Global Positioning System

InfoSec: Information Security

IT: Information Technology

iOS: is an operating system for Apple devices.

developed by Apple

ISA: Information Security Awareness

IoT: Internet of Things

Malware: Malicious software

OS: Operating system

PCA: Principal Component Analysis

PC: Personal Computer

PG: Postgraduate

SM: Social Media

SNS: Social network sites

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences

VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol

UG: Undergraduate

UX: User experience

ISA: Information Security Awareness.

Apps used in this study: free-to-downloadapps, social media, and communication.

Snapchat app: Photo messaging app

WhatsApp: free instant messaging (IM) and voice-over-IP (VoIP) service

Viber: calling and messaging app

ooVoo: avideo chat and a messaging app,

Skype: make free video and voice calls,

Messenger: instant messagingapp,

Imo: a free, simple, and fastervideo call & instant messaging app,

6rounds app: social networking website,

Skout: asocial media dating app,

Omegle: chat and video messaging app,

Azar: video chat app,

Chatroulette: free online random chat app.

Chapter 1: Introduction and Study MotivationIntroduction

This chapter presents background information, the study motivation, and research aim. Also, it outlines the specific research questions in this study. In addition, the significance of this research is addressed as well as the study contribution and finally, this chapter illustrates the thesis structure.

Background

Smartphones have developed from simple communication devices to personal assistants, entertainment devices, and information gateways as mobile phones have matured into smartphones. It is crucial to understand how the rapid evolution and complexity of smartphone usage have affected users relationships with their devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fullwood</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>53</RecNum><DisplayText>(Fullwood et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>53</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">53</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fullwood, Chris</author><author>Quinn, Sally</author><author>Kaye, Linda K</author><author>Redding, Charlotte</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>My virtual friend: A qualitative analysis of the attitudes and experiences of Smartphone users: Implications for Smartphone attachment</title><secondary-title>Computers in Human Behavior</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers in Human Behavior</full-title></periodical><pages>347-355</pages><volume>75</volume><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>0747-5632</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Fullwood et al., 2017).

An important result of mobile technological advancements is that most people and specifically children and young adults now have access to smartphones. These devices have become crucial in peoples everyday lives because they provide a quick and convenient way for finding, accessing, and sharing information ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wang</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>86</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wang et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>86</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">86</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wang, Dan</author><author>Xiang, Zheng</author><author>Fesenmaier, Daniel R</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone use in everyday life and travel</title><secondary-title>Journal of travel research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of travel research</full-title></periodical><pages>52-63</pages><volume>55</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0047-2875</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wang et al., 2016). It is difficult to convey the importance of personal digital security to adult users. Children and young people may be more at risk in this context, and this is the focus of research presented in this thesis. Unrestricted Internet access to and from children's and adolescents mobile devices is one of the concerns brought on by this increased reliance on mobile systems. Cyberbullying, sexting, and online grooming have increased because of the boom in mobile usage among users of school age. This research is driven by the growing risk of malware that targets end users data and sheds insight into these challenges as well. This is especially important if children and young adults are the intended users ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Etaher</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>14</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ahvanooey et al., 2020; Etaher &amp; Weir, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>14</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">14</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Etaher, Najla</author><author>Weir, George RS</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Understanding childrens mobile device usage</title><secondary-title>2016 IEEE International Conference on Cybercrime and Computer Forensic (ICCCF)</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-7</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1509060960</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Ahvanooey</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>201</RecNum><record><rec-number>201</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">201</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ahvanooey, Milad Taleby</author><author>Li, Qianmu</author><author>Rabbani, Mahdi</author><author>Rajput, Ahmed Raza</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on smartphones security: software vulnerabilities, malware, and attacks</title><secondary-title>arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.09406</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.09406</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ahvanooey et al., 2020; Etaher & Weir, 2016).

Younger users can download a lot of apps onto their mobile devices. As a result, people who are not of legal age can use a wide range of tools for communication, study, and enjoyment. Apps, however, may contain malicious code or covert behaviours. Some teen users remove applications or refuse to install them due to privacy concerns ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Madden</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>13</RecNum><DisplayText>(Madden et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>13</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">13</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Madden, Mary</author><author>Lenhart, Amanda</author><author>Cortesi, Sandra</author><author>Gasser, Urs</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Teens and mobile apps privacy</title><secondary-title>Pew Internet and American Life Project</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pew Internet and American Life Project</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2013</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Madden et al., 2013). For instance, location data is delicate. However, this means that the safety and privacy of young people might be impacted by the multitude of smartphone apps that access GPS data. Young people frequently install new apps and regularly update existing ones since they are voracious users of novel apps ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Etaher</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>14</RecNum><DisplayText>(Etaher &amp; Weir, 2016; Zhao et al., 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>14</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">14</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Etaher, Najla</author><author>Weir, George RS</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Understanding childrens mobile device usage</title><secondary-title>2016 IEEE International Conference on Cybercrime and Computer Forensic (ICCCF)</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-7</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1509060960</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Zhao</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>357</RecNum><record><rec-number>357</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667910188">357</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zhao, Sha</author><author>Li, Shijian</author><author>Ramos, Julian</author><author>Luo, Zhiling</author><author>Jiang, Ziwen</author><author>Dey, Anind K</author><author>Pan, Gang</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>User profiling from their use of smartphone applications: A survey</title><secondary-title>Pervasive and Mobile Computing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pervasive and Mobile Computing</full-title></periodical><pages>101052</pages><volume>59</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-1192</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Etaher & Weir, 2016; Zhao et al., 2019).

This places users at risk of malicious changes. Significant concerns for child-related security have arisen with the wide-scale adoption of smartphone devices. Much of this focus falls upon the misuse of permissions. During app installation, permission (usually, a list of permissions) is presented to the user for approval. This approval process is intended to enhance security and privacy by allowing the user to control access to potentially sensitive data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harborth</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>303</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harborth &amp; Frik, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>303</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1665049676">303</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harborth, David</author><author>Frik, Alisa</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Evaluating and Redefining Smartphone Permissions with Contextualized Justifications for Mobile Augmented Reality Apps</title><secondary-title>Seventeenth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security (SOUPS 2021)</secondary-title></titles><pages>513-534</pages><dates><year>2021</year></dates><isbn>1939133254</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harborth & Frik, 2021).

Nowadays, smartphone users prefer downloading apps from app stores for several reasons such as social networking, new gameplay, and photography. In general, they are unconcerned about whether the downloaded apps are malicious, and they install and run them on their smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ahvanooey</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>201</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ahvanooey et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>201</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">201</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ahvanooey, Milad Taleby</author><author>Li, Qianmu</author><author>Rabbani, Mahdi</author><author>Rajput, Ahmed Raza</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on smartphones security: software vulnerabilities, malware, and attacks</title><secondary-title>arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.09406</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.09406</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ahvanooey et al., 2020). As a result, the number of infected smartphone devices with malware apps is on the rise. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>KasperskysecurityLab</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(KasperskysecurityLab, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author> KasperskysecurityLab</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile Malware Evaluation on February 2017</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher> KasperskysecurityLab</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://securelist.com/files/2017/02/Mobile_report_2016.pdf</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(KasperskysecurityLab, 2017), the number of malicious downloading packages surged thrice in 2016, over eight million packages (i.e distinct apps) over the last years, and continues to rise.

Most Internet users now connect via smartphones, tablets, and computers. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Comscore</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>41</RecNum><DisplayText>(Comscore, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>41</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">41</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author> Comscore </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The State of Mobile News Audiences in 3 Charts</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher> Comscore </publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.comscore.com/Insights/Blog/The-State-of-Mobile-News-Audiences-in-3-Charts</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Comscore, 2016) research, there were 2 main types of Internet users: "desktop PC users" and "smartphone users", with 1.8 billion people worldwide having smartphones as of the end of March 2015. Because smartphones have become more popular in recent years, smartphone Internet users now exceed desktop Internet users. Interestingly, this pattern is expected to persist, with smartphone statistics from the Ericsson Mobility Report projecting a 25% growth in mobile traffic by 2025. A large portion of this traffic will result from more mobile video and streaming ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>SmartInsights</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>42</RecNum><DisplayText>(SmartInsights, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>42</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">42</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>SmartInsights</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile marketing statistics compilation 2021</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>Smart Insights</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.smartinsights.com/mobile-marketing/mobile-marketing-analytics/mobile-marketing-statistics/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(SmartInsights, 2021).

As said above, smartphone usage has increased over the past few years. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Strugar</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><DisplayText>(Strugar, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>59</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">59</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Milica Strugar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>30+ Smartphone Usage Statistics for the UK</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>18/01/2022</number><dates><year>2022</year><pub-dates><date>March 16, 2022</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>CyberCrew</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://cybercrew.uk/blog/smartphone-usage-statistics-uk/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Strugar, 2022) the UKs top 10 smartphone usage statistics in 2020:

87 percent of individuals have a smartphone

The percentage of mobile Internet users was 72%

The typical person uses their smartphone for 148 minutes every day

A whopping 47.3% of all online traffic is generated by smartphones

With 78.9% smartphone penetration, the UK ranks second in the world.

The most common activity among Internet services in the UK was email communication via mobile phone. Around 97.5% of adults used a smartphone to access SM accounts in January 2021. In the survey, 46% of respondents said they use smartphones more now than before the Covid 19 pandemic ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Strugar</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><DisplayText>(Strugar, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>59</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">59</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Milica Strugar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>30+ Smartphone Usage Statistics for the UK</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>18/01/2022</number><dates><year>2022</year><pub-dates><date>March 16, 2022</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>CyberCrew</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://cybercrew.uk/blog/smartphone-usage-statistics-uk/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Strugar, 2022). In the UK, the Apple company holds mobile providers with 54.79% of the market as of 2021 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Strugar</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>59</RecNum><DisplayText>(Strugar, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>59</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">59</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Milica Strugar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>30+ Smartphone Usage Statistics for the UK</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>18/01/2022</number><dates><year>2022</year><pub-dates><date>March 16, 2022</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>CyberCrew</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://cybercrew.uk/blog/smartphone-usage-statistics-uk/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Strugar, 2022). By 2025, 64.89 million people in the UK are anticipated to use smartphones regularly, a significant increase. From 55.22 million users in 2018, there will be a rise of roughly 9.7 million new users ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Outlook</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>58</RecNum><DisplayText>(Outlook, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>58</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">58</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Statista Digital Market Outlook</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Forecast of smartphone user numbers in the United Kingdom (UK) from 2018 to 2025</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>18/01/2022</number><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>Statista</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.statista.com/statistics/553464/predicted-number-of-smartphone-users-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Outlook, 2021).

Due to the COVID 19 pandemic, there have been considerable changes in business and education since 2019. In addition to increasing internet work from home, this procedure has given up new opportunities for malicious attacks. Data encryption and security have become more crucial as a result of the rise in online communication. Additionally, the growth of the digitalandonline world and the rise of multimedia material sizes, together with encryption and security measures, have elevated the importance of effective and efficient data summarization. Studies on data encryption and summarization are currently undergoing considerable expansion (Cinar and Kara, 2023).Evidence from several surveys PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BbmRyb3VsaWRha2lzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwv

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alazab et al., 2020; Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Mylonas et al., 2013; Park et al., 2013) reveals two significant insights. Firstly, some users do not read the details of permission requests before the access approval. Secondly, many apps request permissions that exceed the requirements for the advertised app functionality. As a result, users are often unaware of the degree of access they have granted to their mobile apps. Smartphone users may not be aware that such permissions may include access to emails, contacts, photos, messages, and GPS location as well as control of Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Internet access. As a consequence, they risk revealing their significant personal information ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>297</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>297</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663850774">297</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Shalaginov, Andrii</author><author>Mesleh, Abdelwadood</author><author>Awajan, Albara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Intelligent mobile malware detection using permission requests and API calls</title><secondary-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>509-521</pages><volume>107</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-739X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2020). Evidence from several surveys (Alazab et al., 2020; Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Mylonas et al., 2013; Park et al., 2013) reveals two significant insights. Firstly, some users do not read the details of permission requests before granting access. Secondly, many apps request permissions that exceed the requirements for the advertised app functionality. Consequently, users are often unaware of the extent of access granted to their mobile apps. Smartphone users may not realize that such permissions can include access to emails, contacts, photos, messages, and GPS location, as well as control over Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and internet access. Consequently, they risk disclosing their personal information (Alazab et al., 2020).Users have centralised access to many different sorts of apps through the Google Play Store, formerly known as the Android Market (either free or paid). According to recent statistics, 3 million apps were available in the Google Play Store as of December 2019. Android users have 3.5 million apps to pick from in the second quarter of 2022, making Google Play the app store with the most options ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>297</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2020; Statista, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>297</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663850774">297</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Shalaginov, Andrii</author><author>Mesleh, Abdelwadood</author><author>Awajan, Albara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Intelligent mobile malware detection using permission requests and API calls</title><secondary-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>509-521</pages><volume>107</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-739X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Statista</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>283</RecNum><record><rec-number>283</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1661699382">283</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Statista</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Number of apps available in leading app stores as of 2nd quarter 2022</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><dates><year>2022</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.statista.com/statistics/276623/number-of-apps-available-in-leading-app-stores/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2020; Statista, 2022). In 2012, Google introduced a security service - codenamed Bouncer that is credited with a 40% drop in the number of malicious apps in its app store, but there are indications that risks continue both through the Play Store and via third-party app sites ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Duc</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>298</RecNum><DisplayText>(Duc et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>298</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663851185">298</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Duc, Nguyen Viet</author><author>Giang, Pham Thanh</author><author>Vi, Pham Minh</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Permission analysis for android malware detection</title><secondary-title>The Proceedings of the 7th VAST-AIST Workshop Research Collaboration: Review and perspective</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Duc et al., 2015). The current research outlines central issues of smartphone security awareness with a particular concern for knowledge, experience, and behaviour. As well as finding behaviours and attitudes that expose users to online risks. Users have centralized access to many different types of apps through the Google Play Store, formerly known as the Android Market (either free or paid). According to recent statistics, there were 3 million apps available in the Google Play Store as of December 2019. Android users had 3.5 million apps to choose from in the second quarter of 2022, making Google Play the app store with the most options (Alazab et al., 2020; Statista, 2022). In 2012, Google introduced a security service codenamed 'Bouncer,' which is credited with a 40% decrease in the number of malicious apps in its app store. However, there are indications that risks persist both through the Play Store and via third-party app sites (Duc et al., 2015). The current research addresses central issues of smartphone security awareness, with a particular focus on knowledge, experience, and behavior, while also identifying behaviors and attitudes that expose users to online risks.Motivation and Background context of the studyStudy Motivations

Smartphone technology changes rapidly and many of the apps it supports have become part of everyones life. However, there is limited information about the influence that these changes have on smartphone users awareness and their behaviour.

Most smartphone users are exposed to different security threats and risks sent by cybercriminals such as malware, viruses, worms, Trojans, phishing, social engineering risks, and data loss because these devices have a mobility feature and are connected to the Internet. Consequently, those users are potentially vulnerable to such threats and risks. A recent report showed that around 4 million records have been breached in the UK in March 2022 according to IT governance ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Irwin</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>57</RecNum><DisplayText>(Irwin, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>57</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">57</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Luke Irwin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>List of data breaches and cyber attacks in March 2022 3.99 million records breached</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>18/05/2022</number><dates><year>2022</year></dates><publisher>IT Governance </publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/blog/list-of-data-breaches-and-cyber-attacks-in-march-2022-3-99-million-records-breached</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Irwin, 2022). Additionally, earlier studies raised concern about the limited awareness of threats by smartphone users as well as limited information about their attitude, experience, and behaviour ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013; Symantec, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Symantec</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>356</RecNum><record><rec-number>356</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667840942">356</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Symantec</author></authors></contributors><titles><title> 2015 Internet Security Threat Report. Symantec.</title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>Symantec_annual_Internet_threat_report_ITU2015.pdf </electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013; Symantec, 2015).

A survey ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) indicated that smartphone users are not aware of the security and privacy risks linked with downloading apps. Most respondents to the survey believed that controlled app marketplaces, like Google Play, are secure. They suggested that users views may negatively affect security. Even though most smartphone users are concerned about and fear for their privacy and security, more than 65% of those surveyed gave permitted for free applications to access their data, for instance ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Symantec</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>356</RecNum><DisplayText>(Symantec, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>356</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667840942">356</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Symantec</author></authors></contributors><titles><title> 2015 Internet Security Threat Report. Symantec.</title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>Symantec_annual_Internet_threat_report_ITU2015.pdf </electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Symantec, 2015). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the attitudes and misunderstandings held by smartphone users regarding security and privacy. This will aid researchers in developing systems that protect the privacy and security and accessibility of data stored on users devices.

This thesis focuses on understanding the reasons for security breaches and the ways they can be limited based on the knowledge, experience, attitude, and behaviour of smartphone users. The focus is on understanding the behaviours of smartphone users by reflecting on their self-reports. Understanding the awareness of users and their experience was an issue of interest in this research. So, this study may contribute to what is available in the literature by supplying a better understanding of the issue by investigating the role of demographic factors in security awareness. By supplying information about the level of awareness of the possible threats and risks that can expose the security of the users. Furthermore, supply information about whether smartphone users are having concerns about the exposure of their data to such threats and risks. Also, the research examines user security awareness of smartphone risks.

Why smartphone is important in the 21st century?

Smartphones are rapidly becoming ubiquitous, they offer a wide range of new computer capabilities and online connections along with the based mobile phone facilities for the users, using such devices rises the chance of facing information security breaches and being subject and vulnerable to malware and online risks and threats. Additionally, the use of smartphones and their related apps require a connection to the Internet, this connection rises the risks of security incidents and those users become more vulnerable to such risks and threats particularly if they connect to unsafe Wi-Fi. Users also store their data and information on their smartphones as well as on PCs, laptops, and tablets ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McGill</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>167</RecNum><DisplayText>(McGill &amp; Thompson, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>167</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">167</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McGill, Tanya</author><author>Thompson, Nik</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Old risks, new challenges: exploring differences in security between home computer and mobile device use</title><secondary-title>Behaviour &amp; Information Technology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Behaviour &amp; Information Technology</full-title></periodical><pages>1111-1124</pages><volume>36</volume><number>11</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>0144-929X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McGill & Thompson, 2017).

The smartphone has high technical capabilities, which makes them convenient and friendly to use, users can perform a variety of activities such as contacting others through social networks, entertainment, using GPS, and visiting websites. All these activities on smartphones and connected to Wi-Fi expose them to security breaches and make those users more vulnerable to online risks and threats that can be caused by unauthorized access to their devices. This access can cause cybercriminals to perform lots of different malware attacks. The second quarter of 2020 shows a new report for mobile app downloads with 37.8 billion (Briskman, 2020). According to FinancesOnline, (2021) Zoom overtook WhatsApp as the most downloaded app in the United States with more than 40 million downloads in the second quarter of 2020. Zoom was one of the apps that have been attacked by hackers during that time. The COVID-19 pandemic, which lead to the use of video and chat tools increasing and remote work settings, is to blame for this. The most downloaded app of the quarter is TikTok, which is followed by Facebook Messenger. The health apps number as well as medical apps number downloaded during the pandemic have increased, with South Korea leading the pack among nations that installed medical apps for the period of the epidemic ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>FinancesOnline</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(FinancesOnline, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">44</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>FinancesOnline</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Number of Apps in Leading App Stores in 2022/2023: Demographics, Facts, and Predictions</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>FinancesOnline</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://financesonline.com/number-of-apps-in-leading-app-stores/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(FinancesOnline, 2021).

Study AimThe principle aim of this research is to investigate smartphone security awareness as there is limited information in the literature. Also, this study records smartphone usage patterns across important demographics such as gender, age, and education levels. In addition to assessing smartphone users experiences, this study aims to supply insights on the prevalence of respondents smartphone usage. Additionally, research their personality patterns in relation to smartphone use, social trends throughout ages, the impact of gender preferences and level of education ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Anshari</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(Anshari et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Anshari, Muhammad</author><author>Alas, Yabit</author><author>Hardaker, Glenn</author><author>Jaidin, JH</author><author>Smith, Mark</author><author>Ahad, Annie D</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone habit and behavior in Brunei: Personalization, gender, and generation gap</title><secondary-title>Computers in Human Behavior</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers in Human Behavior</full-title></periodical><pages>719-727</pages><volume>64</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0747-5632</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Anshari et al., 2016).

To this end we investigated the usage of smartphones among UK schools and university smartphone users aged 12- 35 as they are the most smartphone users and they are active in social media platforms and might be more vulnerable to malware risks ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>De Kimpe</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>358</RecNum><DisplayText>(De Kimpe et al., 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>358</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667948840">358</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>De Kimpe, Lies</author><author>Walrave, Michel</author><author>Ponnet, Koen</author><author>Van Ouytsel, Joris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Internet safety</title><secondary-title>The international encyclopedia of media literacy</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The international encyclopedia of media literacy</full-title></periodical><pages>1-11</pages><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(De Kimpe et al., 2019). ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sheng</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>158</RecNum><DisplayText>(Algarni et al., 2017; Sheng et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>158</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">158</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sheng, Steve</author><author>Holbrook, Mandy</author><author>Kumaraguru, Ponnurangam</author><author>Cranor, Lorrie Faith</author><author>Downs, Julie</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Who falls for phish? A demographic analysis of phishing susceptibility and effectiveness of interventions</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems</secondary-title></titles><pages>373-382</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Algarni</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>161</RecNum><record><rec-number>161</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">161</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Algarni, Abdullah</author><author>Xu, Yue</author><author>Chan, Taizan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>An empirical study on the susceptibility to social engineering in social networking sites: the case of Facebook</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Information Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>661-687</pages><volume>26</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>0960-085X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Algarni et al., 2017; Sheng et al., 2010). Nearly all children and teenagers in the Western world are active internet users. Smartphones are very popular as nine out of ten young people in Europe between the ages of 16 and 19 are online every day ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Eurostat</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>363</RecNum><DisplayText>(Eurostat, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>363</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1668076842">363</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Eurostat</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Being young in Europe todaydigital world</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Authors Luxembourg</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Eurostat, 2017). While the likelihood of experiencing sex-related harassment rises during adolescence, the prevalence of cyberbullying peaks between the ages of 12 and 15 years old. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Livingstone</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>362</RecNum><DisplayText>(Livingstone &amp; Smith, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>362</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1668076804">362</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Livingstone, Sonia</author><author>Smith, Peter K</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Annual research review: Harms experienced by child users of online and mobile technologies: The nature, prevalence and management of sexual and aggressive risks in the digital age</title><secondary-title>Journal of child psychology and psychiatry</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of child psychology and psychiatry</full-title></periodical><pages>635-654</pages><volume>55</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0021-9630</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Livingstone & Smith, 2014).

The current research aimed to understand their security awareness and identify the risks that expose users to malware as well as investigate smartphone users perspectives and attitudes of owning and using smartphones.

Research Questions

This study focuses on security awareness among school and university smartphone users. It also investigates some important demographics as well as examines smartphone usage and the behaviours and attitudes of users that expose them to risks. Based on the aim of this study, these are the research questions that have been identified to shed light on the smartphone security awareness.

The main questions addressed in this research in the context of smartphone use are as follows:

RQ1: To what extent demographic factors can influence security awareness in smartphone use.

RQ2: What are the most important variables that may influence users security awareness in smartphone usage?

RQ3: To what degree smartphone users behaviour expose to online risk.

RQ4: To investigate current models, frameworks, methods, and techniques used to raise awareness on the use of smartphones and internet among kids, students, and young generations to highlight the shortages in these methods or techniques.Q4-1. Which cybersecurity risks are available for young generations in the current state of the art?RQ4-2. What are the approaches employed in raising young generations' cybersecurity awareness?RQ4-3. How do researchers assess or evaluate cybersecurity awareness among young generations?Significance of the studyCyber security and technical safeguard are no longer enough: individual and even business need cyber resilience. Widespread phishing, malware, and other online frauds pose a risk not just to individuals but to entire economies, governments, and everyones way of life. The enormous amount of information stored on smartphones has resulted in various types of attacks on smartphones, most of which involve vulnerabilities related to human factors. Different types of attacks may exploit different sets of human vulnerabilities. Therefore, the skills needed by a mobile user to detect or prevent one type of attack may not be the same needed in the face of another kind of attack. Most ISA approaches broadly address security awareness, without focusing on a specific type of threat or attack.

Students (ages 18 to 24) are prime targets for security threats since they provide a high risk. The age of secondary school students can be the ideal period to meet this challenge because, according to the literature, secondary school students are considered to be a high security risk as it relates to using their passwords, and there is a tangible need to highly concern in this age to make the responsibility of security awareness grow with the user behaviour.(Al-Jerbie, and Jali,2014).Contribution of the studyMost of the previous studies have tried to improve security awareness from different perspectives. However, this study has focused on the users of smartphone security awareness particularly, knowledge, experience, and behaviour. It also focused on their attitudes toward smartphone usage.

The smartphone is becoming one of the most convenient devices with a wide range of features. By connecting users to the Internet, these devices give users access to a wide range of features, including browsing the web, accessing social networks, storing data,sending, and receiving messages and emails, shopping online, GPS navigation, and many more. These devices have a wide range of business uses in addition to being utilised for personal purposes.

According to the demographic analysis, every user who took part in the study had a smartphone. This outlines the importance and popularity of smartphones among populations of school and university students.

Because of these features of smartphones and their widespread, users store significant sensitive information on these devices which needs to be protected. Smartphone information security can be achieved by using security mechanisms installing such as antivirus, using robust passwords, and data encryption. Although some smartphones come with security software, users do not use them or do not know how to use them. This study was conducted to shed light on smartphone security-related issues. And to identify the factors that affect smartphone security awareness and discover any differences by the demographic factors- if there are any-.

The study discovered those users security awareness in particular their knowledge, experience, and behaviour, and found that these aspects could affect them. Also, it was found that demographic factors such as age, gender, and education level were influential factors.

This research has made several contributions to the knowledge. First, this study examined smartphone users security awareness from distinct perspectives including age, gender, and level of education. The existing studies related to smartphone awareness are limited and needs to be more focused. Therefore, this study attempted to provide information on how people use their smartphones, specifically among high school and university students.

Secondly, the present study addressed smartphone users security awareness from a wide range of demographic perspectives. The research provided information related to smartphone users behaviour, knowledge, and experience, as well as their attitudes toward smartphone usage and the security features they use, such as locking mechanisms, app usage, smartphone locations service, and mobile instant messages. Although, some researchers examined the awareness of smartphone users few of them have used mixed-methods to provide in-depth information related to risky behaviour. Thirdly, it offers valuable information to the knowledge highlighting the key features related to risky behaviours that may put the users. This information is beneficial to smartphone users and developers. Fourth, this study highlights various security and privacy-related behaviours that expose smartphone users to malware risks.

One of the primary implications of the current study would involve smartphone users, security specialists, and educators, IT support systems at the schools and the university. Information security experts and information security educators could create and implementmore effective and moreeffective security plans and policies by focusing on the related factors that have significant effects on users security awareness. For example, to make users more aware of the risks associated with smartphone usage, educational programs could be created that change users perceptions regarding the usefulness of security mechanisms. And smartphone users could be educated about issues and consequences of security breaches on their smartphones. And this will give them an awareness of the risks that might face while using their smartphones.

The awareness programs could be spread through influential media such as the Internet through social media accounts, and websites of the school and university. The designers of information security programs and information security specialists could create plans to show the importance of policies that could better protect users privacy and safety from risks. Such programs could affect users awareness than their behaviour toward security technologies usage. Individual and public networks would be more secure and smartphone users could reduce information security breaches, which have been proven to be costly and destructive. Moreover, this study introduced a better understating of smartphone usage among users through insights into the nature of the smartphone security awareness aspects related to knowledge, experience, and behaviour. And it could be applied in the field of information security to help users stay safe from risks and threats. And as it has investigated smartphone security awareness among school pupils and university students at the same time, using mixed methods. Therefore, the current research extends the scope of the field by addressing some recommendations.

Definition of termsThe following definitions are for the terms that are used in this study:

Phishing: is an attempt to obtain sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details by imitating a well-known service provider in an electronic communication such as an email ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nicholson</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nicholson, 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1661511384">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nicholson, James, </author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Yousra Javed, Matt Dixon, Lynne Coventry, Opeyemi Dele Ajayi, and Philip Anderson. </author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Investigating teenagers ability to detect phishing messages.</title><secondary-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>140-149</pages><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Nicholson</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1661511384">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nicholson, James, </author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Yousra Javed, Matt Dixon, Lynne Coventry, Opeyemi Dele Ajayi, and Philip Anderson. </author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Investigating teenagers ability to detect phishing messages.</title><secondary-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>140-149</pages><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nicholson, 2020).

Mobile malware: is malicious software specifically designed to target mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>297</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>297</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663850774">297</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Shalaginov, Andrii</author><author>Mesleh, Abdelwadood</author><author>Awajan, Albara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Intelligent mobile malware detection using permission requests and API calls</title><secondary-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>509-521</pages><volume>107</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-739X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2020).

A convenience sample is a type of non-probability sampling method where the sample is taken from a group of people easy to contact or to reach.

Thesis StructureThis thesis is structured into several chapters and some appendices. These chapters are organised as follows:

Chapter 1: Introductory chapter that supplies background information on this research and supplies context for the research. Also, it includes the motivation, background information, the research aims, and the research questions. It also shows the contribution of this study. Finally, it presents the structure of the thesis.

Chapter 2: Presents literature review and related work. It discusses the information security, malware, mobile malware, banking malware: ZeuS, as well as the factors that can affect students' security awareness such as age, gender, and level of education. The last section of this chapter contains studies that consider different studies on smartphone usage among young people, phone usage for communication-related purposes, malware, mobile malware, security, and privacy and finding research gaps.

Chapter 3: Outlines the research method in the literature. It provides a summary of the research methodologies available in the existing literature to the researcher and illustrates the research methods that have been used to answer the research questions.

In addition, research method and implementation for the quantitative research is provided in this chapter. It describes the use of a survey to collect quantitative data from smartphone users, covering design and distribution, sampling, response rate, reliability, validity, and ethical approval.

Also, implementation of the research methodology for qualitative study is covered. The method for qualitative study (interviews) was implemented. Details are given of the method used to examine users attitudes towards smartphone use.

Chapter 4: Result 1 Descriptive findings and presents the demographic characteristics of the quantitative sample of school-aged pupils and university students. The reason and method of conducting this quantitative study are explained in this chapter, as well as the descriptive findings of this study. Then this chapter presents results 2 Non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests) for quantitative data. Next section in Chapter 6 presents Results 3 Factor analysis and non-parametric test results. It discusses inferential statistics obtained from the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests.

Chapter 5: Results 4 Qualitative study (interview findings).

Chapter 6: Overall discussion of the key findings for both quantitative and qualitative studies.

Chapter 7: This chapter provides conclusion, strengths and weaknesses of this study, recommendations, and the main contributions of this research as well as suggestions of several directions for future investigations in future research.

Chapter 2: Related Work

IntroductionThe current research investigates the security awareness of smartphone users and in particular: their knowledge, experience, and behaviour. This chapter represents an overview of related work to this topic. It discusses the importance of smartphones briefly and then provides details related to mobile information security and cybersecurity. It also presents the current methods, theories, and techniques to raise the security awareness. Then provides studies that investigate differences in demographic factors were also shown. Finally, Tthe research gap is highlighted.

SmartphonesSmartphones are mobile computational devices that combine modern portable computers with the functionalities of old phones. The smartphone can be considered as a mobile device having extra functionalities such as a large screen, friendly interface, sufficient memory, and an OS that is extensible to third-party apps, in addition to these features, smartphones are connected to the Internet and consequently can perform as a PC ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bagga</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>291</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bagga et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>291</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">291</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bagga, Teena</author><author>Sodhi, J</author><author>Shukla, B</author><author>Qazi, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone Security Behaviour of the Indian Smartphone User</title><secondary-title>Man In India</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Man In India</full-title></periodical><pages>333-344</pages><volume>97</volume><number>24</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bagga et al., 2017). It offers continuous access to the Internet, which may pose a threat to their users. Smartphones are now used for different activities as multipurpose device other than the basic mobile phone (Anshari, et al., 2017).

Users use them for activities such as voice calls, video calls, text messaging, taking photos, surfing the Internet, contacting families and friends through SM accounts, emails, shopping online and using online banking, so, they store enormous amounts of sensitive data, which needs to be protected.With the evolution of smartphones becoming minicomputers, they now serve a variety of purposes for everyone, including social media use, e-mail, and financial transactions. The use of smartphones has significantly increased over time, in accordance with these alluring features. These mobile devices ability to offer users a wide variety of mobile applications to download is one of their mainfeatures. The prevalence of malware has also grown, though, as have hacking attacks. Technology for detecting and defending against mobile malware is still insufficient today. Mobile security includes factors including internet communication, data encryption, data summarization, and users awareness of their privacy in addition to being directly tied to the operating system and device being used (Cinar and Kara, 2023).One of the most important features of smartphones is its ability to install extra apps to the devices which are. Apps are software programmes designed to be used on portable wireless devices such as smartphones, are referred to as mobile apps ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pechenkina</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>264</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pechenkina, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>264</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">264</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pechenkina, Ekaterina</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Developing a typology of mobile apps in higher education: A national case-study</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Educational Technology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Educational Technology</full-title></periodical><volume>33</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1449-5554</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pechenkina, 2017); ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hinze</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>106</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hinze et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>106</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">106</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hinze, Annika</author><author>Vanderschantz, Nicholas</author><author>Timpany, Claire</author><author>Cunningham, Sally Jo</author><author>Saravani, Sarah-Jane</author><author>Wilkinson, Clive</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Use of mobile apps for teaching and research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1177-777X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hinze et al., 2017).

These apps have progressed from simple early apps like games, calculators, and editors of text to more complicated third-party apps with sophisticated features like SM engagement, mobile banking, and learning. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hinze</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>106</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hinze et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>106</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">106</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hinze, Annika</author><author>Vanderschantz, Nicholas</author><author>Timpany, Claire</author><author>Cunningham, Sally Jo</author><author>Saravani, Sarah-Jane</author><author>Wilkinson, Clive</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Use of mobile apps for teaching and research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1177-777X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hinze et al., 2017) apps are software that is particularly intended for portable devices. These apps have a wide range of apps in the education sector, including information collecting, resource access, communication, and collaboration ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Aljaber</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><DisplayText>(Aljaber, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028894">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Aljaber, Abdullah Awadh M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The reality of using smartphone applications for learning in higher education of Saudi Arabia</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Aljaber, 2021). Through social networking services and efficient communication platforms like apps, smartphones assist users in establishing and maintaining social connections ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Susanto</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>299</RecNum><DisplayText>(Susanto et al., 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>299</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663851715">299</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Susanto, Heru</author><author>Fang Yie, Leu</author><author>Mohiddin, Fadzliwati</author><author>Rahman Setiawan, Arief Amier</author><author>Haghi, Parastou Khodaparast</author><author>Setiana, Desi</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Revealing social media phenomenon in time of COVID-19 pandemic for boosting start-up businesses through digital ecosystem</title><secondary-title>Applied system innovation</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Applied system innovation</full-title></periodical><pages>6</pages><volume>4</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2021</year></dates><isbn>2571-5577</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Susanto et al., 2021).

The smartphone usage is increasing along with the third-party apps for smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>297</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>297</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663850774">297</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Shalaginov, Andrii</author><author>Mesleh, Abdelwadood</author><author>Awajan, Albara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Intelligent mobile malware detection using permission requests and API calls</title><secondary-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>509-521</pages><volume>107</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-739X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2020). Users can install these apps through App stores. The latter provides apps from app stores, which can be either official, such as Google Play, or unofficial such as the Amazon App Store for Android.

Since the smartphone has altered how individuals connect with the outside world and one another, information about them and by them is continuously being transmitted. Information security-related topics will be covered in further detail in the following section. The use of mobile devices begins to replace PC for both personal and corporate use. Because of their growing use and security procedures that are not as efficient and well-known as on PC, mobile devices are also subject to higher security risks. Smart devices provide portable IT to their users, making life easier for personal and business usage anywhere Internet connectivity is available. In every part of peoples life, mobile phones are the most extensively used smart devices. These devices, however, differ in terms of operating systems, security systems, and apps (Zerbe et al., 2019).

As smartphones become more common, their use expands to include mobile apps that require protection. Smartphone users, on the other hand, could use their devices to store valuable information, making them potential targets for attackers. A missing or stolen smartphone can have disastrous consequences for its owner ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019).

Mobile security

Over the years, there was a huge rise in the importance of securing portable or mobile devices as the use of such devices have been increased significantly and they are connected to different networks. As a result, it is crucial to focus on the device security. Mobile security can be identified as the protection of portable computing devices and the networks they connect. In this context, devices typically include smartphones, laptops, and tablets and the purpose of mobile security if protect them from online risks and threats.

A report by (Wigmore, et al., 2012) informed that there are some concerns of mobile security, these are described below:

Device loss: It was the top security concern. This is because users can lose their sensitive information if they leave their portable devices somewhere. Sensitive information can be at high risks such as banking credentials and personal information.

App security: It was the second-most important security issue. One issue is that some mobile apps ask for too many permissions, allowing them to access multiple data resources on the devices. Since several mobile apps, particularly free ones, are constructed with connections to a marketing network, the creators of these apps can gain a lot from the users information, including contacts, browsing history, and geolocation data. Malicious apps that covertly transfer private information to a remote site are another issue.

Device data leakage: was one of the mobile security matters. All the main concerns, which ranged from infecting with malicious apps attacks, are data leakage sources to data loss or theft.

Malware attack: was another concern for the mobile security. Malware is categorized into the following most common categories; Viruses, Worms, Trojans, Rootkits, Botnets, and Spyware ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Peng</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>255</RecNum><DisplayText>(La Polla et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>255</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">255</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Peng, Sancheng</author><author>Yu, Shui</author><author>Yang, Aimin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone malware and its propagation modeling: A survey</title><secondary-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>925-941</pages><volume>16</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>La Polla</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>83</RecNum><record><rec-number>83</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">83</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>La Polla, Mariantonietta</author><author>Martinelli, Fabio</author><author>Sgandurra, Daniele</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>IEEE communications surveys &amp; tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>446-471</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(La Polla et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2013).

Device theft: was also one of the concerning problems (Wigmore, et al., 2012), prior to the solutions available nowadays such as find my phone app.

In the crime world, financial botnets are an international risk to banking companies. Such software intentionally commits financial fraud and takes vital data from users PCs. ZeuS is a popular example of banking malware. It is the most sophisticated and dangerous risk to the most detection engines and Internet security, including Symantec and McAfee ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Venkatraman, Sitalakshmi</author><author>Watters, Paul</author><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Ammar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cybercrime: the case of obfuscated malware</title><secondary-title>Global security, safety and sustainability &amp; e-Democracy</secondary-title></titles><pages>204-211</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2011). Recently, variations of this malware have targeted mobile platforms, such as The-ZeuS-in-the-Mobile or Zitmo ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Etaher</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>208</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2011; Etaher et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>208</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">208</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Etaher, Najla</author><author>Weir, George RS</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>From zeus to zitmo: Trends in banking malware</title><secondary-title>2015 IEEE Trustcom/BigDataSE/ISPA</secondary-title></titles><pages>1386-1391</pages><volume>1</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1467379522</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Venkatraman, Sitalakshmi</author><author>Watters, Paul</author><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Ammar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cybercrime: the case of obfuscated malware</title><secondary-title>Global security, safety and sustainability &amp; e-Democracy</secondary-title></titles><pages>204-211</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2011; Etaher et al., 2015).

However, with mobile systems rising, platform security is becoming a major concern across the mobile world due to the rising incidence of compromising Android devices. There have been mobile botnet attacks on iPhones, Blackberry and Symbian devices. In this setting, Etaher and others (2015) reported trends and developments of ZeuS and its variants ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Etaher</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>208</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2011; Etaher et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>208</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">208</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Etaher, Najla</author><author>Weir, George RS</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>From zeus to zitmo: Trends in banking malware</title><secondary-title>2015 IEEE Trustcom/BigDataSE/ISPA</secondary-title></titles><pages>1386-1391</pages><volume>1</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1467379522</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Venkatraman, Sitalakshmi</author><author>Watters, Paul</author><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Ammar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cybercrime: the case of obfuscated malware</title><secondary-title>Global security, safety and sustainability &amp; e-Democracy</secondary-title></titles><pages>204-211</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2011; Etaher et al., 2015).

Banking Trojans have come a long way in the last years, as evidenced by the recent example of Emotet. Emotet and Zeus, two typical cases from the end of the last decade, can be used to chart the emergence of the modern computer ecosystem. To stay undiscovered, previous malware like Zeus only required to use simple anti-analysis tactics, however more contemporary malware like Emotet had to continually adapt to keep one step ahead ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Grammatikakis</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>(Grammatikakis et al., 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Grammatikakis, Konstantinos P</author><author>Koufos, Ioannis</author><author>Kolokotronis, Nicholas</author><author>Vassilakis, Costas</author><author>Shiaeles, Stavros</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Understanding and Mitigating Banking Trojans: From Zeus to Emotet</title><secondary-title>2021 IEEE International Conference on Cyber Security and Resilience (CSR)</secondary-title></titles><pages>121-128</pages><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1665402857</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Grammatikakis et al., 2021). Mobile security has become a growing concern in everyday lifetime. If a portable device is not used securely, it can allow many harmful security consequences. For example, sensitive information leakage and malware attacks. Consequently, mobile users must act securely by being aware of mobile security.

Mobile malware Numerous malware varieties employ a variety of techniques to spread and infect victims devices. According to Peng and La Polla, malware is any form of software or programme code that might be obtrusive, antagonistic, or bothersome ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Peng</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>255</RecNum><DisplayText>(La Polla et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>255</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">255</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Peng, Sancheng</author><author>Yu, Shui</author><author>Yang, Aimin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone malware and its propagation modeling: A survey</title><secondary-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>925-941</pages><volume>16</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>La Polla</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>83</RecNum><record><rec-number>83</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">83</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>La Polla, Mariantonietta</author><author>Martinelli, Fabio</author><author>Sgandurra, Daniele</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>IEEE communications surveys &amp; tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>446-471</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(La Polla et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2013). A link to a website where malicious code can be downloaded is one way that mobile malware can spread. Infected SMS attachments, MMS attachments, Bluetooth transmission of infected applications, and app downloads that contain malware are all examples of ways that malware can be delivered. When malware attacks mobile devices, its primary objective is typically to obtain personal information saved on the device and/or the users credit card ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Peng</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>255</RecNum><DisplayText>(La Polla et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>255</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">255</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Peng, Sancheng</author><author>Yu, Shui</author><author>Yang, Aimin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone malware and its propagation modeling: A survey</title><secondary-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>925-941</pages><volume>16</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>La Polla</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>83</RecNum><record><rec-number>83</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">83</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>La Polla, Mariantonietta</author><author>Martinelli, Fabio</author><author>Sgandurra, Daniele</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>IEEE communications surveys &amp; tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>446-471</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(La Polla et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2013).Malware attack strategiesBecher et al., (2011) mention the various attack techniques and malware behaviour types that exist. Information or identity theft comes first. An illustration of this is when a user downloads a mobile game from a third-party app store and the game can track the users location. Because the user always carries a mobile device with them, this information can include GPS coordinates, credentials, contacts, corporate and private documents, and various forms of communications (SMS, MMS, email, etc.) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Becher</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>60</RecNum><DisplayText>(Becher et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>60</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">60</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Becher, Michael</author><author>Freiling, Felix C</author><author>Hoffmann, Johannes</author><author>Holz, Thorsten</author><author>Uellenbeck, Sebastian</author><author>Wolf, Christopher</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile security catching up? revealing the nuts and bolts of the security of mobile devices</title><secondary-title>2011 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy</secondary-title></titles><pages>96-111</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>0769544029</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Becher et al., 2011).Secondly, there is eavesdropping code that can be inserted into apps that catch voice calls and to track record any chats silently which fall within the microphones field of view. Another attack method is the use of mobile botnets. These hacked mobile devices are the ideal "machines" that can be operated remotely that attackers are seeking for. Mobile devices are susceptible to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks in addition to mobile botnets. One method is to use malware that employs all the CPU cycles available for useless calculations to launch an attack that requires a lot of power and drains the devices battery. By deleting or distorting the crucial data kept in hard-to-reach locations, the mobile devices functionality can also be stopped. Finally, the attacks may also be aimed at causing financial harm. It may do so by confusing the user of the mobile device and the service provider, or it may gain access to sensitive financial data kept on the device and conduct transactions on the users behalf without the users knowledge. Whereas Peng et al., (2013) stated that the rise in malware attacks over time was mostly connected to the decreasing cost of mobile devices, the open-source kernel policy, the storage of sensitive data on mobile devices, and the development of mobile OS. The next section discusses the importance of user awareness about the use of mobile devices and security. Due to the worldwide adoption and widespread popularity of mobile devices, mobile malware attacks are rising at an alarming level. The authors of mobile malware use third-party apps to inject malicious content into smartphone devices and therefore compromise their security. Therefore, there is an increased interest in information security as mobile security has become a critical issue as the smartphone has many apps dealing with various personal and confidential information. Therefore, there is an urgent need to understand those attacks to protect smartphones. In addition, (Chandramohan & Tan, 2012) indicated that there is a need for more research on mobile security. However, to achieve that there is a need to understand the smartphone users behaviour as well as to understand if the smartphone users have developed an understanding of information security or not. Also, with the increased of use of the internet to share information, there is a need to protect the confidentiality and integrity of data which is ever more obvious ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Al-Nemrat</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>337</RecNum><DisplayText>(Al-Nemrat et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>337</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666604726">337</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Al-Nemrat, Ameer</author><author>Jahankhani, Hamid</author><author>Preston, David S</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cybercrime victimisations/criminalisation and punishment</title><secondary-title>International Conference on Global Security, Safety, and Sustainability</secondary-title></titles><pages>55-62</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Al-Nemrat et al., 2010). In the literature, there is a gap in this area. Types of malicious attacks and mobile vulnerabilities Malicious attack typesAn attempt to misuse and exploit another deviceusing a variety of techniques constitutes a malicious attack (threat). Threats like this aim to gain control of the device and access personal information without the victim's knowledge.There are three types of attacks which can be devided into man-in-the-middle attacks, Phishing attackes, and social engineering.1. Social engineering is a type of threat used by hostile social engineers to get your personal information from you by imitation of the script (prosecutor, police, banker). Advertising is a common way that social engineering threats on smartphones. Adware frequently contains malware that is covertly inserted and can be executed without the user's consent.2. Phishing apps are fake apps that pose as legitimate secure apps on a user's smartphone to steal theirpersonal data such as login passwords.3. A man-in-the-middle attack (MITM) is the collection and manipulation of network packets by listening in on conversations between two links. This attack has the potential to break the connection or provide deceptive communication (Cinar and Kara, 2023).Mobile security vulnerabilitiesMobile device vulnerabilities are flaws in the operating system that leave the device open to attack. Mobile Android and iOS smartphones are susceptible to threats for a number of reasons. In particular, the fact that the Android operating system is an open-source operating system contributes to the fact that it is more vulnerable to attacks. Regular updates are neglected, and installing apps from official app stores or third-party app stores without verifying their authenticity results in security risks. Even if apps were downloaded from secure app stores like the Apple Store or Google Play, victims may still be assaulted because malicious attackers may put threatening code on the front of a real app. The Synopsys Cybersecurity Research Centre (CyRC) research revealed that 97% of the software and systems tested in 2020 had vulnerabilities.Common Vulnerabilities and Exposureslist contained 18,353 vulnerabilities as of 2020. Nearly four years in a row, these records-breaking figures are over four times what they were five years ago (Cinar and Kara, 2023). In addition, vulnerabilities in insecure data storage and communication pose a threat to mobile devices and users. Of the vulnerabilities, 53% were related to unsecured communicationsand 80% to unsafe data storage (Cinar and Kara, 2023).Information Security (InfoSec)InfoSec is defined as the preservation of the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information which are principal elements nowadays due to the changing environment of the computer industry as well as the mobile systems ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Whitman</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>240</RecNum><DisplayText>(Whitman &amp; Herbert, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>240</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">240</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Whitman, Michael E</author><author>Herbert, J</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mattord Principles of information security</title><secondary-title>Cengage Learning EMEA</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Cengage Learning EMEA</full-title></periodical><volume>598</volume><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Whitman & Herbert, 2009). These points ensure that sensitive data is only disclosed to authorised people (confidentiality), avoid unauthorised modification of data (integrity) and ensure the data can be retrieved by authorised individuals when demanded (availability) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bagga</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>291</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bagga et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>291</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">291</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bagga, Teena</author><author>Sodhi, J</author><author>Shukla, B</author><author>Qazi, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone Security Behaviour of the Indian Smartphone User</title><secondary-title>Man In India</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Man In India</full-title></periodical><pages>333-344</pages><volume>97</volume><number>24</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bagga et al., 2017). Information can be presented in a variety of ways, including as written or printed text on paper, electronic data storage, electronic transmission by email or other means, video, audio, motion pictures, and discussion. Based on ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Whitman</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>240</RecNum><DisplayText>(Whitman &amp; Herbert, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>240</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">240</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Whitman, Michael E</author><author>Herbert, J</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mattord Principles of information security</title><secondary-title>Cengage Learning EMEA</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Cengage Learning EMEA</full-title></periodical><volume>598</volume><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Whitman & Herbert, 2009) InfoSec is important to protect the information systems and hardware that are used to store and transfer the information.

InfoSec is therefore the protection of information, a valuable resource, from harm brought on by a variety of threats and vulnerabilities. However, nowadays mobile system information security has considerable interest from the researchers due to the fast progress in developing mobile systems as well as the intensive use of mobile phones. Therefore, cybersecurity is an appropriate topic to investigate to develop an understanding of smartphone users behaviours, and as part of this it is critical to understand the differences between cybersecurity and information security from the phone users perspective.

Information security and cybersecurity

Academics and scholars around the world are now interested in and focused on the topic of cybersecurity. The UK has made major financial commitments in recent years and ranks cybersecurity as one of its top priorities for a transformative National Cyber Security Programme (Minister for the Cabinet Office and Paymaster General, 2011). Information security is important for smartphone users to protect their critical information such as sensitive or banking data. It should be implemented correctly to avoid or reduce relevant risks and threats. Cybercrime has grown quickly recently, and malware is one of the most common security risks in computers and mobile devices.There is a lack of knowledge about such malware risks and the procedures that can be used to implement security prevention and detection. And there is a lack of the security measures to protect users information ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Salahdine</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>316</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alazab et al., 2020; Salahdine &amp; Kaabouch, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>316</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666179705">316</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Salahdine, Fatima</author><author>Kaabouch, Naima</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social engineering attacks: A survey</title><secondary-title>Future Internet</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Internet</full-title></periodical><pages>89</pages><volume>11</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1999-5903</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Alazab</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>297</RecNum><record><rec-number>297</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663850774">297</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alazab, Moutaz</author><author>Alazab, Mamoun</author><author>Shalaginov, Andrii</author><author>Mesleh, Abdelwadood</author><author>Awajan, Albara</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Intelligent mobile malware detection using permission requests and API calls</title><secondary-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>509-521</pages><volume>107</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-739X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alazab et al., 2020; Salahdine & Kaabouch, 2019).

Many users share too much personal information on SNS. Human personal traits frequently require users to post concerns that they would not share in person. Some users upload movies, comments, and audio regarding their habits, lifestyles, clothing, political opinions, and so on a regular or daily basis. They may use many blogs and vlogs (video blogs) to display their everyday routines and banal tasks such as brushing their teeth, cleaning their faces, and so on ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hamid</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>28</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hamid et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>28</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">28</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hamid, Abdul</author><author>Alam, Monsur</author><author>Sheherin, Hafsina</author><author>Pathan, Al-Sakib Khan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cyber security concerns in social networking service</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Communication Networks and Information Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Communication Networks and Information Security</full-title></periodical><pages>198-212</pages><volume>12</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>2073-607X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hamid et al., 2020).

Computer and mobile device users may have little information about cybersecurity and information security, and there is lots of confusion about it. Although there is a clear line between the two as information security is the broader category and covers the digital and hard copy information. The goal of security is to shield assets from the numerous risks that arise from particular built-in vulnerabilities. The selection and implementation of security controls, also known as countermeasures, that serve to lower the risk provided by these vulnerabilities are typically the focus of security processes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gerber</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>238</RecNum><DisplayText>(Farn et al., 2004; Gerber &amp; Von Solms, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>238</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">238</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gerber, Mariana</author><author>Von Solms, Rossouw</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Management of risk in the information age</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>16-30</pages><volume>24</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Farn</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>239</RecNum><record><rec-number>239</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">239</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Farn, Kwo-Jean</author><author>Lin, Shu-Kuo</author><author>Fung, Andrew Ren-Wei</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A study on information security management system evaluationassets, threat and vulnerability</title><secondary-title>Computer Standards &amp; Interfaces</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer Standards &amp; Interfaces</full-title></periodical><pages>501-513</pages><volume>26</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2004</year></dates><isbn>0920-5489</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Farn et al., 2004; Gerber & Von Solms, 2005). Add newCybersecurity is protecting computer systems from unofficial access which may lead the user to be vulnerable to some attacks from online risk. Additionally, cybersecurity measures required people who work online and whatever assets they have that can be accessed online, as well as the safety of cyberspace itself ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Von Solms</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>237</RecNum><DisplayText>(Von Solms &amp; Van Niekerk, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>237</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">237</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Von Solms, Rossouw</author><author>Van Niekerk, Johan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>From information security to cyber security</title><secondary-title>computers &amp; security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>97-102</pages><volume>38</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Von Solms & Van Niekerk, 2013). Although these definitions have been available in the literature, the mobile phone users seem still not to have a complete understanding as the academics and researchers have done some work in this area to make these definitions easier and accessible to the computer and mobile system users.

This current research defined mobile security as a process of protecting and securing all sensitive and confidential information stored on smartphones from unauthorised access. This definition was used in the current study to assess the security awareness, experience and behaviour of smartphone users enrolled in this study. Additionally, it acknowledges security awareness: knowledge, attitude, experience, and behaviour among smartphone users.

Theories and methods that can be used to assist smartphone cybersecurityThere are many theories and methods that can be used to assist smartphone cybersecurity for teenagers. For example: 1. Social Learning Theory: This theoryclaims that people pick up knowledge by observing others. Parents can function as role models for their children when it comes to cybersecurity by using safe online behaviours themselves. They can have a good impact on their teens' behaviorby using their phones responsibly and assisting them in implementing effective procedures for cybersecurity. According to the social learning theory, children learn by observing what other people do (modelling) and then cognitively presenting the observed behaviour of the other people (Hidayat, et al., 2022).2. Protection Motivation Theory: Numerous researchers have recently adapted PMT to address various cybersecurity vulnerabilities (Meier, et al., 2020, and Van Bavel, et al., 2019). Perceived Vulnerability, Perceived Severity, Self-Efficacy, Response Efficacy, and Response Cost are the five constructs that make up PMT. According to PMT, these components support the intention to modify behaviour. Threat appeal normally refers to the first two constructs, and coping appeal often refers to the last three (Ganesh, et al., 2022). This hypothesis examines why people feel the need to defend themselves against threats. Parents can inform their teenagers about the risks of using their smartphones, including malware, phishing scams, and unauthorised access. Teenagers might become more motivated to take the appropriate precautions and safeguard their technology by expanding their awareness and understanding.3. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: According to this hypothesis, people feel uncomfortable when their beliefs or actions conflict. Parents can take advantage of this concept by pointing out contradictions between teens needs for privacy and cybersecurity. Parents can urge teens to adopt safer behaviours by raising knowledge of the potential negative effects of not using secure practises. According to (Festinger, 1957) claims related to the Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT), people who possess two or more contradictory elementsof information experience cognitive dissonance (Eichner, A.A., 2021).4. Theory of Planned Behavior:According to (Fishbein and Ajzen), the best indicator of any planned behaviour is intention (Zwilling, et al., 2022). According to this theory, a person's attitudes, subjective norms, and sense of behavioural control all have an impact on their intentions and behaviours. By giving information and resources, encouraging open communication, and highlighting the significance of responsible smartphone use, parents may help in forming favourable attitudes about cybersecurity. They can also foster an environment that supports and promotes securepractises.Smartphone usage among teens (usage, concerns and issues)Smartphone use among 12 to 16-year-olds includes social media, entertainment, communication, and educational tasks. They frequently use their smartphones in the following ways:Communication: users communicate with friends and family through texting, calling, and using messaging services like WhatsApp, Snapchat, or Instagram. Using a smartphone for communication increases relationships and interactions with family, friends, neighbours, and parents (Bae, 2019).2. Social media: Teenagers and college students mostly use smartphones for SM platforms like Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat. They use these apps to connect with friends, share pictures and videos, follow celebrities, and take part in challenges and trends (Bae, 2019).3. Entertainment: This age group uses smartphones heavily for gaming. They enjoy playing electronic games, watching videos on websites like YouTube, listening to music, and taking part in other digital entertainment activities. It is significant to note that there are several uses for smartphones, including those linked to learning, entertainment, interaction with others, and gaming (Abbasi, 2021).4. Internet browsing: Teenagers visit a variety of websites and online resources while using their smartphonesto explore the internet, perform informational searches, read the news, and access other websites.5. Educational endeavours: Numerous students utilise their smartphones for academic endeavours. They can use educational apps, online study tools, take notes, set reminders, work together on group projects, and access educational content.Here are some typical procedures for protection methods to protect users information online:1. Strong passwords: For their devices and numerous online accounts, teenagers should use original, secure passwords. They should refrain from using passwords that are simple to guess or from using the same password on numerous platforms.2. Privacy settings: Encourage them to check and modify their social media privacy settings so they can manage who may see their posts, access their personal information, and get in touch with them.3. App permissions: Remind them to carefully evaluate app permissions and only provide essential access to their sensitive data, including personal information, contacts, and location.4. Security software can add an additional layer of defence against malware and other online risks. Reputable antivirus and security software should be installed on smartphones.However, using a smartphone while a teenager raises security issues in addition to its advantages. Here are a few typical security concerns:1. Cyberbullying: Social media platforms can be used as a platform for cyberbullying, where kids may encounter harassment, threats made online, or the distribution of rumours or embarrassing material.2. Inappropriate content: While browsing the internet or utilising specific apps, teenagers may encounter inappropriate or sexual content. Their wellbeing and mental health may suffer as a result.3. Privacy risks: Using social media or other platforms to share personal information can put your privacy at risk. Teens should exercise caution when sharing information online and make sure their privacy settings are acceptable.4. Online predators: Teens who use the internet may be at risk from predators or others who may be acting maliciously. They need to know how to stay secure online, how to keep their information private, and how to report any questionable activity.5. Malware infections and phishing attacks: Downloading dangerous programmes or clicking on phoney links can result in malware infections and phishing attacks, which can steal sensitive data like passwords or credit card numbers.Teens and their parents/guardians should have open discussions about online safety, establish rules and guidelines for smartphone use, educate themselves about privacy settings and security features, and promote responsible and safe online behaviour in order to reduce these security concerns.The level of security awareness among smartphone users might vary depending on a number of factors. To better understand how users can be motivated to prioritise security on their smartphones, the followings are a few potential factors that might have an impact on smartphone users security awareness and that might beinvestigated: 1. Demographics: Age, gender, education, and occupation can all affect how security-conscious smartphone users are. Younger people, for instance, might be more prone to use social media and reveal personal information, but elderly people might be more circumspect because they worry about data privacy.2. Technical proficiency: Users technical proficiency may also influence their security awareness. More experienced users of smartphones and other devices may be more aware of security threats and take preventative measures to safeguard themselves.3. Previous security breach experience: Users who have had a security breach in the past may be more aware of the hazards and take precautions.4. Perceived susceptibility: A users opinion of their propensity to be the target of hackers might have an impact on their security awareness. Users may take extra safety measures to protect themselves if they feel they are at a higher risk.5. Perceived severity of repercussions: Users perceptions of the seriousness of a security breachs consequences can also have an effect on their security awareness. Users may be more willing to take precautions to protect themselves if they perceive the repercussions could be severe (such as significant financial loss or identity theft).6. Users trust in technology and the businesses that develop and maintain it might also affect how security-conscious they are. People who have trust in their devices and the manufacturers may be less wary than sceptics.7. Social influence: Lastly, social influence may affect consumers' awareness of security issues. People may be more inclined to prioritise security if they are surrounded by other people who do so.Awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and behavioursThe use, awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of teen smartphone users might vary greatly depending on personal choices, the cultural setting, and additional factors. Here aresome trends based on teen smartphone users. Also, individual experiences and behaviours can differ:UsageTeenagers spend a lot of time on their smartphones, frequently using them for several hours per day, and they strongly rely on them for a variety of functions, including communication, social media, entertainment, education, and information access.Teenagers frequently use their smartphones heavilyto text, make calls, browse social networking sites, play games, watch videos, listen to music, and use a variety of mobile apps.Teens use their smartphones frequentlyfor several hours each day, and frequently engage in activities like messaging, calling, surfing social media, playing games, watching videos, listening to music, and utilising a variety of mobile apps.Awareness and KnowledgeTeenagers are typically tech-savvyand have a solid knowledge of smartphone capabilities and functionality.They are knowledgeable about widely used social media sites, applications, and other digital trends.They frequently keep up with the latest smartphone models and technical breakthroughs.Many teens are aware of internet safety and privacy concerns; however, some may still require advice and education in this area.Over the past 20 years, there has been an increase in the usage of educational tools, such as digital games, movies and animation, tabletop games, learning modules and comics. The most popular forms of media for educating cybersecurity are short animated films and online games. The resources aim to increase knowledge of general cybersecurity, e-safety, e-privacy, and digital citizenship and literacy among both adult and young audiences (Zhang-Kennedy, 2021).Attitudes Smartphones are viewed as a vital instrument for communication and social interaction among teenagers and play a significant part in their life. Teenagers frequently have an intense attachment totheir smartphones, and they frequently experience FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) if they are unable to use them or stay connected. The continual connectedness and information overload brought on by smartphones may cause some teenagers to feel overwhelmed or develop digital tiredness.Behaviors Teenagers may use their smartphones excessively or compulsively, which can have a severe impact on their mental health, sleep patterns, and general well-being.Smartphones can be used for cyberbullying and online harassment, which some teenagers may engage in or experience first-hand. Teenagers use of social media may have an impact on their self-esteem, perceptions of their bodies, and social comparison.While smartphones can offer access to materials for study, some teenagers may find it difficult to maintain a balance between constructive smartphone use and diversions.To sum up, it is crucial to note that people may have different experiences. When addressing smartphone usage, awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours among teenagers, it is essential to consider their individual experiences.Current models, frameworks, methods, and techniques used to raise awareness on the use of smartphones and internet among kids, students, and young generationsA study by (Koyuncu, M. and Pusatli, T., 2019) examines the awareness levels of various user groups divided into categories based on their demographic information and looks at the level to which smartphone users are aware of various security-related parameters. It is based on research from a survey that was conductedwith a wide range of ages, educational levels, and IT security knowledge. The results show that participants awareness levels are generally quite low and may use significant improvement. The oldest age group, followed by the youngest, has the lowest level. The degree of awareness is generally positively correlated with education level. IT expertise is another factor that raises smartphone users level of security awareness.Watson and Zheng [14] investigate user awareness of mobile security recommendations and conclude that especially those without strong information technology familiarity tend to ignore or be unaware of many critical security options. Therefore, they suggest developing methods to improve awareness and adoption of mobile security.To increase overall safety awareness, this paper presents an experimental study examining the use of gamification techniques to educateusers about password security. A role-playing quiz application (RPG) for the Android platform was created to educate users about password security and to investigate the effects of such techniques. The studys findings showed that users enjoyed using the password application for learning and thought the usage of gamification techniques benefited them. The research described in this paper uses gamification techniques to raise security awareness while improving password hygiene (Scholefield, and Shepherd, 2019).Raising End-User Security AwarenessTable below shows that there are some studies have been conducted to raise the cybersecurity awareness by different ways including hypothesized models. For example;(Mai, and Tick, 2021) investigated 313 responses from University Students in Hungary and Vietnam and they designed a (CHI-squared Automatic Interaction Detector) decision tree, and they found that all respondents lack knowledge of cyber security, resulting in a low degree of awareness of cyber threats. However, Zwilling, (2022) investigated 459 respondents bothunder-graduate and graduate students. They hypotosized a model that investigate the connection between awareness, knowledge, and behaviors. Their findings indicate that internet users are adequately aware of cyber threats but only take a minimum number of protective measures, which are typically rather basic and common.However, Omar, et al., (2020) conducted a qualitative study using focus group with 20 informants among youth, They found that the majority of young people have a basic knowledge regarding being aware of information security, especially when it comes to utilizing secure passwords and sharing information. In addition, (Khalid, et al., 2018) investigated 142 second-year students using quantitative study. The studys findings revealed that while these college students had a high level of awareness regarding some aspects of cyber security, such as cyberbullying, personal information, and internet banking, they lacked the appropriate knowledge regarding the topic of cybersex and self-protection.(Bioglio, et al., 2018) concucted a quantitative study on 450 kids and 22 teachers, their method is stimulating and helps teachers guide students in identifying potential privacy risks in social network activity.There are numerous ways userscan put themselves atrisk while exploring the web. These can include using websites with poor coding, coming up with weak passwords, and downloading information from websites that have dangerous files on them [2]. To increase end-user security awareness when doing online transactions, a variety of techniques have been employed, including contextual affective feedback given in a web browser (Shepherd, 2017); (Shepherd, and Archibald, 2017), visualizing privacy regulations (Kelley, et al., 2009) and phishing awareness software (Canova, et al., 2014). On their work, (Scholefield, S. and Shepherd, L.A., 2019 ) focused on security awareness tools created to enhance password security because passwords. They developed a role-playing quiz application (RPG) for the Android platform in order to educate users about password security and to investigate the effects of such techniques. Theirfindings showed that users enjoyed using the password application for learning and thought the usage of gamification tactics benefited them. As a further work, they suggested that theirprototype canbe developed to become a comprehensive solution that addresses a variety of security awareness challenges. Table (): A representative sample of some studies related to raising user security awarenessStudySample sizeFactors investigatedMethodModelMain resultsMai, P.T. and Tick, A., 2021.313 responses from University Students in Hungary and VietnamAge, genderQuantitative: survey(CHI-squared Automatic Interaction Detector) decision treeCHAID algorithmall respondents lack knowledge of cyber security, resulting in a low degree of awareness of cyber threats.Zwilling, (2022)under-graduate and graduate students.459 respondents.gender, age, degree of using IT.Quantitative: surveyThey hypotosized a model that investigate the connection between awareness, knowledge, and behaviors.The findings indicate that internet users are adequately aware of cyber threats but only take a minimum number of protective measures, which are typically rather basic and common.Beyond the differences in respondent nation or gender, the study's findings also demonstrate a relationship between stronger cyber knowledge and level of cyber awareness.Additionally, awareness is linked to defence mechanisms but not to information they were willing to share.Omar, et al., (2020)Focus groupwith 20 informants among youthAge 21-40,Gender, Race, Educational level, job Status, Marital status.Qualtitative studyNot appliedThe majority of young people have a basic knowledge regarding being aware of information security, especially when it comes to utilizing secure passwords and sharing information. However, their research aims to raise awareness about the significance of information security and to educate them on how to be a secure user of the Internet.(Koyuncu, M. and Pusatli, T., 2019)155Gender,Age, educational level,and IT security expertiseQuantitative surveyNot appliedParticipants awareness is generally low, and it needs to be raised significantly. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bitton</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>290</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bitton et al., 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>290</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">290</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bitton, Ron</author><author>Finkelshtein, Andrey</author><author>Sidi, Lior</author><author>Puzis, Rami</author><author>Rokach, Lior</author><author>Shabtai, Asaf</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Taxonomy of mobile users&apos; security awareness</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>266-293</pages><volume>73</volume><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bitton et al., 2018)17 security expertsknowledge, attitude, and behaviour)Quantitative surveyA hierarchical structure of the psychological dimensions and componentsSmartphone user is required to have the skills (knowledge, attitude, and behaviour) to mitigate an attack vary based on the attack class.(Watson, and Zheng, 2017)86 participantsstudents, faculty, and staffQuantitative surveyThe results of this study could be used to build a model of suitable mobile user security as recommended.Most users failed to follow critical security recommendations without strong information technology (IT) familiarity.(Gkioulos, et al., 2017)1012 respondentsEducational backgroundQuantitative surveyThe results of this study could be used to design educational and awareness campaigns, as well as user behaviour modellingSignificant influences on the digital natives behaviors, arising from users educational background, confidence, and factors related to accessibility and usability.(Khalid, et al., 2018)142 second-year studentsGender,Educational prgramQuantitative surveyThe studys findings revealed that while these college students had a high level of awareness regarding some aspects of cyber security, such as cyberbullying, personal information, and internet banking, they lacked the appropriate knowledge regarding the topic of cybersex and self-protection.(Al-Jerbie, and Jali, 2014).952 secondary school studentsAge, gender, grade, and nationalityQuantitative and qualitativeThe results showed that although students exhibit a slightlevel of awareness, they still do not correctly practise information security. To reduce security concerns, it is essential to perform a study on secondary school students' awareness levels as well as a security training programme.(Bioglio, et al., 2018)450 kids and 22 teachersage and years of teaching experience,motivation and attitudeQuantitative SurveySocial Network Simulation Game to Raise awareness of privacy among school childrenTheir method is stimulating and helps teachers guide students in identifying potential privacy risks in social network activity.(Scholefield, and Shepherd, 2019).17 participantsAge, gender, and level of educationQualitative and quantitativeGamification techniques: (RPG) a role-playing quiz app was developed to educate Android users about password security.Users liked using the password application for learning and thought the usage of gamification techniques and itbenefited them. Furthermore, participants felt gamification was a useful technique of raising security awareness.The prototype will be developed further to become a comprehensive solution that addresses a variety of security awareness issues.Effort on Cyber Security Awareness for Young GenerationMany research studies have been conducted in the past, and several gaming apps based on cyber security have been developed in recent years to educate users, particularly children and young generations, and to raise their awareness of cyber security. Examples include "Cybersecurity Lab," which aims to teach young people the fundamentals of cyber security, "Internet Protection," a web-based Internet safety game, and "Kids gameFBI," which is about managing online security. The group does need to talk about one thing, though. For instance, many games and applications are made consistently or quickly as part of research plans, but after being reviewed, they frequently disappear and are rarely available to the broader audience (Roepke, and Schroeder, 2019). In order to investigate how children, learn about cyber security in informal settings, Design-Based Research (DBR) is being used (Quayyum, 2020). This study aims to enhance current teaching strategies and methodologies and find fresh, inventive, and creative teaching approaches, particularly in the CSA field.According to (Bada et al., 2014), measures to improve security policy and promote a healthy society have not had the desired impact. Therefore, it is vital to concentrate effectively on limitations to enhance resident, customer, and staff behavioursregarding information security. Presenting information about risks and behaviour is not enough to change behaviour. These antecedents of behaviour change have been established by numerous psychological models of behaviour. The authors assess the effectiveness of several persuasive techniques, including the frequently employed "fear appeals."The UK CSA CampaignIn the UK, many awareness efforts are being run with the goal of strengthening online security for both businesses and the general population. The following lists the top two of these.The GetSafeOnline Campaign ( GetSafeOnline Campaign, 2021). This initiative, which is supported by a number of public and private organisations, focuses on home and business users. "Get Safe Online"'s positive message, which emphasises that people are ultimately responsible for remaining safe online, is intriguing in and of itself.(ii) The Cyber Streetwise Campaign (The Cyber Streetwise Campaign, 2014): It targets users at both their homes and places of employment. These urge companies to increase their security by following five simple actions.By providing these ideas and recommendations, the movement hopes to alter people's perceptions about internet security. "In short, the weakest links in the cyber security chain are you and me," declares the campaign, which employs a positive strategy to change user behaviour.Campaign for CSA in MalaysiaThe Ministry of Women, Family, and Community Development (MWFCD), Malaysian Communications And Multimedia Commission (MCMC), CyberSecurity Malaysia (CSM), and Digi Telecommunications have all launched national campaigns to raise awareness of cyber safety in Malaysia. The use of government-provided media is essential for considerably increasing awareness, particularly among parents and students (Jambari, 2017). A program dubbed Click Wisely, which MCMC introduced in 2016, featured over 800 events for an expanding 1.7 million participants (MCMC, 2017). The Malaysian Education Blueprint Higher Education 20152025 (MEBHE) suggests the 2013released Malaysian Education Blueprint Higher Education 20132025. One of the foundations that is shifting is using ICT to scale up high-quality education throughout Malaysia. The two suggested solutions are to make Internet connection and a virtual learning environment available to all 10,000 schools and to maximise the use of ICT for distance and self-paced learning to increase access to high-quality instruction regardless of location or student ability level (Zulkifli, et al., 2020).Cyberattacks may put information protection at risk. Cyber awareness has grown in importance as Internet and data usage rates keep increasing. Knowledge of Cybersecurity Awareness (CSA) is essential for adjusting to online usage, especially among younger generations. In order to prevent this generation from becoming stuck in the excessive disclosure of personal information, society and authorities, with government assistance, must play their respective responsibilities. To make sure the message is received and prevention is made possible by Malaysia's young generation, it is necessary to develop a strong and realistic awareness programme or events. Parents, schools, workplaces, the media, business bodies, and related authorities can all help put best practises into place when it comes to ensuring that personal information is accessible online. Early preparation for childrenwill help themhandle their internet activities responsibly as adults, lowering their chance of victimisation both now and in the future (Sulaiman, et al., 2022). HYPERLINK "file:///nfshome.cis-vm.strath.ac.ukhomessystemWindowsDownloads978-3-030-85990-9%20(5).pdf" 978-3-030-85990-9 (5).pdf (strath.ac.uk)Security awareness: knowledge, attitude, experience, and behaviour among smartphone users

Security knowledge

Mobile security awareness can be defined as the knowledge, attitude, and behaviour that users exhibit to the security when using their mobile devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Allam</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>292</RecNum><DisplayText>(Allam et al., 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>292</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">292</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Allam, Sean</author><author>Flowerday, Stephen V</author><author>Flowerday, Ethan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone information security awareness: A victim of operational pressures</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>56-65</pages><volume>42</volume><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Allam et al., 2014). Applications of security awareness programmes aim to raise users levels of understanding of a given risk area. According to Kruger and Kearney (2006), three factorsshould resultwhen awareness levels are addressed, these factors are:

Knowledge: what users know,

Attitude: what users think,

Behaviour: what users do.

Through order to lessen the security risk, these aspects are addressed in awareness programs. Previously, Harris, et al., (2014) indicated that there is a diversity of weaknesses in the attitude and behaviour about mobile device users security. This is because of a lack of understanding what security awareness means and what security problems that lead to risky behaviour by smartphone users. This could be reduced when the users develop more knowledge about security awareness.

Additionally, to the above definition, this current study included the users experience in using a smartphone as a crucial factor of security awareness.

The findings of the related literature review and studies revealed that information security should be considered alongside knowledge, experience, and behaviour. In addition, information protection is intimately linked to the definition of risk ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>t</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>164</RecNum><DisplayText>(t et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>164</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">164</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>t, Gizem</author><author>Testik, zlem Mge</author><author>Chouseinoglou, Oumout</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Analysis of personal information security behavior and awareness</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>83-93</pages><volume>56</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(t et al., 2016). So, in the current study, the researcher tried to add the experience to (Figure 2-1) as it is a key factor in smartphone information security.

knowledge

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

knowledge

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 2 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 1:Factors studied in previous this research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bitton</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>290</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bitton et al., 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>290</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">290</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bitton, Ron</author><author>Finkelshtein, Andrey</author><author>Sidi, Lior</author><author>Puzis, Rami</author><author>Rokach, Lior</author><author>Shabtai, Asaf</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Taxonomy of mobile users&apos; security awareness</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>266-293</pages><volume>73</volume><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bitton et al., 2018)

knowledge

experience

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

knowledge

experience

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 2 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 2: Factors studied in this researchOnly a few studies focused on security awareness, privacy, and worldwide data privacy concern, have been found to have a major impact and are significantly influential on mobile protection behaviour and mobile security behaviour. Low awareness and low worldwide information privacy concern have also been found to be predictors of non-use of protection measures, whereas high awareness and high concern could help predict the use of protecting the smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kraus</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>230</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bagga et al., 2017; Kraus et al., 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>230</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">230</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kraus, Lydia</author><author>Wechsung, Ina</author><author>Mller, Sebastian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A comparison of privacy and security knowledge and privacy concern as influencing factors for mobile protection behavior</title><secondary-title>Workshop on Privacy Personas and Segmentation</secondary-title></titles><pages>2014</pages><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Bagga</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>291</RecNum><record><rec-number>291</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">291</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bagga, Teena</author><author>Sodhi, J</author><author>Shukla, B</author><author>Qazi, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone Security Behaviour of the Indian Smartphone User</title><secondary-title>Man In India</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Man In India</full-title></periodical><pages>333-344</pages><volume>97</volume><number>24</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bagga et al., 2017; Kraus et al., 2014). According to other studies, smartphone users are complacent when it comes to information security, have a high degree of trust for smartphone app stores, do not think about privacy and security while installing new apps, and do not use smartphone security features to protect themselves PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QcmFtb2Q8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDE0PC9ZZWFyPjxS

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Bagga et al., 2017; Ophoff & Robinson, 2014; Pramod & Raman, 2014). Additionally, recent research has demonstrated that smartphone users are capable of recognising a considerable array of risks and protective measures associated to smartphone use ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kraus</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>231</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kraus et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>231</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">231</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kraus, Lydia</author><author>Fiebig, Tobias</author><author>Miruchna, Viktor</author><author>Mller, Sebastian</author><author>Shabtai, Asaf</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Analyzing end-users knowledge and feelings surrounding smartphone security and privacy</title><secondary-title>S&amp;P. IEEE</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>S&amp;P. IEEE</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kraus et al., 2015).

Smartphones have become a valuable target for onlineattackers as they hold a lot of differentinformation. As a result, smartphone users must take precautions such as becoming aware of susceptibilities and risks, also, implementing security mechanisms to prevent risks (Parker et al., 2015). The volume of private data, sensitive information, and banking credentials held by smartphones, as revealed by ENISA, makes users attractive targets for hackers (Hogben & Dekker, 2010). Smartphones could be affected by malwares meant to steal details of credit cards and login passwords for online banking. However, compared to PCs, these devices have more limited user interfaces, making entering some information more difficult. As a result, users choose to keep credentials on their devices for convenience. Therefore, one of the variables studied by researchers for awareness is credential management and the usage of protective technologies (Gkioulos et al., 2017).

Typical behavioural aspects related to security awarenessfocus on the user being aware of the risks of storing credentials on smartphones.By sniffing, spoofing, or eavesdropping on a wireless network, attackers can corrupt, block, or modify information (Jeon et al., 2011). These studies suggest that human characteristics of information security are not given significant attention compared to technical security controls. Studying the human aspects is necessary for security, without considering human aspects cannot deliver comprehensive security solutions as technology alone cannot offer solutions.

Increasing a user's awareness could result in a rise in compliance with good security practises (Kraus et al., 2014). In addition, educators and instructors must have a thorough understanding of users pre-existing behaviours, knowledge, misconceptions, and overall attitude toward smartphone security in order to create beneficial security awareness resources. Furthermore, the results of the study by Markelj & Bernik, (2015)suggest that respondents have a poor understanding of mobile device risks. They are familiar with basic threats, but not with specific, more complicated threats, such as those that are most on the rise.

Lazou & Weir, (2011) conducted a survey and discovered that more than half of mobile device users do not use passwords to protect their device, that user awareness is very low among the survey respondents, and that a variety of sensitive personal and business information is regularly stored on the users mobile devices. They advise customers to make use of the security measures offered by their mobile devices due to the risks involved with the storing of sensitive personal information. Another study by Taywade & Khubalkar, (2019) focuses on the differences in smartphone usage patterns between adolescent girls and boys and explained why these differences exist. These findings help in a better understanding of the next generations needs. There is a need to better understand users digital behaviours to study potential psychosocial concerns and, as a result, established measures to improve peoples mental health in society.

Personal awareness and public education on cybercrime methods and measures are consideredthe first lines of defence against this crime ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Al-Nemrat</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>339</RecNum><DisplayText>(Al-Nemrat &amp; Benzaid, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>339</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666605913">339</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Al-Nemrat, Ameer</author><author>Benzaid, Chafika</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cybercrime profiling: Decision-tree induction, examining perceptions of internet risk and cybercrime victimisation</title><secondary-title>2015 IEEE Trustcom/BigDataSE/ISPA</secondary-title></titles><pages>1380-1385</pages><volume>1</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1467379522</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Al-Nemrat & Benzaid, 2015). Their findings show that individuals who frequent cybercafes are more likely to participate in harmful online behaviour. They are more likely to become victims of cybercrime because they lack the level of risk awareness required to take preventative steps.

Users Attitude

Attitude is the feelings, opinions, and tendencies toward any object or notion (Khatun et al., 2017). It might be positive or negative (Priester & Petty, 1996). Attitude, according to Kruger & Kearney, (2006), is how an individual believes about a security issue. According to Ng & Rahim, (2005) study, attitude may refer to tendency of the user to react positively to security practices. Attitude is a good predictor of individuals behaviour and intention ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kutluca</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>257</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kutluca &amp; Gokalp, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>257</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">257</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kutluca, Tamer</author><author>Gokalp, Z</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A study on computer usage and attitudes toward computers of prospective preschool teacher</title><secondary-title>International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications</full-title></periodical><pages>1-17</pages><volume>2</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kutluca & Gokalp, 2011). Few security researchers and psychologists have investigated a person's attitude toward security ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ng</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>221</RecNum><DisplayText>(Esmaeili, 2014; Kutluca &amp; Gokalp, 2011; Ng &amp; Rahim, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>221</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">221</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ng, Boon-Yuen</author><author>Rahim, Mohammad</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A socio-behavioral study of home computer users&apos; intention to practice security</title></titles><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kutluca</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>257</RecNum><record><rec-number>257</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">257</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kutluca, Tamer</author><author>Gokalp, Z</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A study on computer usage and attitudes toward computers of prospective preschool teacher</title><secondary-title>International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications</full-title></periodical><pages>1-17</pages><volume>2</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Esmaeili</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>284</RecNum><record><rec-number>284</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">284</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Esmaeili, Mohammadjafar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Assessment of users&apos; information security behavior in smartphone networks</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Esmaeili, 2014; Kutluca & Gokalp, 2011; Ng & Rahim, 2005).

Frequently observed behaviour is that some people use their smartphones all throughout the day, checking them last thing at night ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Oulasvirta</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>192</RecNum><DisplayText>(Oulasvirta et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>192</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">192</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Oulasvirta, Antti</author><author>Rattenbury, Tye</author><author>Ma, Lingyi</author><author>Raita, Eeva</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Habits make smartphone use more pervasive</title><secondary-title>Personal and Ubiquitous computing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Personal and Ubiquitous computing</full-title></periodical><pages>105-114</pages><volume>16</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1617-4917</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Oulasvirta et al., 2012). Smartphone users, according to Pew Research Centre (2014), use them to handle a variety of needs, such as those relating to banking, health, learning, and finding a job. Smartphones have also been identified as a motivator and aid in education and developing users capacities entertaining, security, and leisure among people of all ages ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hotut</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>203</RecNum><DisplayText>(Campbell, 2007; Hotut, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>203</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">203</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hotut, Sibel</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Uses and gratifications of mobile phone use among students in Turkey</title><secondary-title>Global Media Journal: Mediterranean Edition</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Global Media Journal: Mediterranean Edition</full-title></periodical><pages>10-17</pages><volume>5</volume><number>1/2</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Campbell</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>204</RecNum><record><rec-number>204</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">204</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Campbell, Scott W</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A cross-cultural comparison of perceptions and uses of mobile telephony</title><secondary-title>New Media &amp; Society</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>New Media &amp; Society</full-title></periodical><pages>343-363</pages><volume>9</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>1461-4448</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Campbell, 2007; Hotut, 2010). As a result, it is important to understand how attitude and usageinfluence smartphone users.

Esmaeili, (2014) proposed a model for evaluating factors that influenced smartphone information security activity. The study revealed a model that relied on the decomposed theory of planned action which suggest security behaviour is influenced by a variety of factors, involving security attitude. He defined security attitude by psychological components as follows:

1. Perceived probability of a threat the user believes that the probability of security breaches on his/her smartphone is high.

2. Perceived severity of a threat the user believes that security breaches could risk his/her resources.

3. Perceived usefulness of recommended behaviour the user believes that security practice behaviours on his/her smartphone can be effective.

This was a good foundation for this study and therefore, this current research defined the security attitude as the service users approach in response to a threat based on three levels on the ground of understanding the threat from malware. Additionally, this current research expanded the security attitude definition to include a fourth component which is the experience of a malware threat or malware attack.

Users Experience

Smartphones are among the most often used devicesin usersdaily life duo to their data access capabilities andwide variety of apps. People may read the news, play games, shop online, interact with friends on social media, and more with only a smartphone. Nowadays, some people reach for their smartphones as soon as they wake up ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Chotpitayasunondh</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>20</RecNum><DisplayText>(Chotpitayasunondh &amp; Douglas, 2016; Perlow, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>20</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">20</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chotpitayasunondh, Varoth</author><author>Douglas, Karen M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How phubbing becomes the norm: The antecedents and consequences of snubbing via smartphone</title><secondary-title>Computers in Human Behavior</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers in Human Behavior</full-title></periodical><pages>9-18</pages><volume>63</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0747-5632</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Perlow</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>19</RecNum><record><rec-number>19</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">19</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Perlow, Leslie A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Sleeping with your smartphone: How to break the 24/7 habit and change the way you work</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>Harvard Business Press</publisher><isbn>1422144046</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2016; Perlow, 2012). Users experience defineshow the user feels and thinks about a product from his or her own perspective. The general impression of look and actual interaction is known as the UX of smartphones PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5IYXNzZW56YWhsPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwNzwvWWVh

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Ding et al., 2020; Hassenzahl, 2007; Law et al., 2014).

The evaluation of UX must consider feelings created when using a smartphone as well as positive experiences or preferences that are prompted by its physical design. Although numerous research have used both subjective and empirical techniques to measure the feeling elicited by smartphone look ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ding</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ding et al., 2017; Park et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ding, Yi</author><author>Guo, Fu</author><author>Hu, Mingcai</author><author>Cao, Yaqin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using event related potentials to investigate visual aesthetic perception of product appearance</title><secondary-title>Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing &amp; Service Industries</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing &amp; Service Industries</full-title></periodical><pages>223-232</pages><volume>27</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1090-8471</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Park</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>15</RecNum><record><rec-number>15</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">15</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Park, Jaehyun</author><author>Han, Sung H</author><author>Kim, Hyun K</author><author>Cho, Youngseok</author><author>Park, Wonkyu</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Developing elements of user experience for mobile phones and services: survey, interview, and observation approaches</title><secondary-title>Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing &amp; Service Industries</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing &amp; Service Industries</full-title></periodical><pages>279-293</pages><volume>23</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1090-8471</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ding et al., 2017; Park et al., 2013) to the best of the authors knowledge, there is still debate over how to measure the UX during live smartphone use ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ding</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>21</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ding et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>21</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">21</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ding, Yi</author><author>Cao, Yaqin</author><author>Qu, Qingxing</author><author>Duffy, Vincent G</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>An exploratory study using electroencephalography (EEG) to measure the smartphone user experience in the short term</title><secondary-title>International Journal of HumanComputer Interaction</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of HumanComputer Interaction</full-title></periodical><pages>1008-1021</pages><volume>36</volume><number>11</number><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>1044-7318</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ding et al., 2020).

UX is a principal element to be studied and few researchers have investigated it due to the limited ability of smartphone users to connect experience with usage.

In 2005, in the United States men accounted for 72% of all Internet users, and their smartphone use was mostly for gaming. Not only that, but women used roles like shopping, communication, and emergency purposes more often than men. Mobile phones were used more often by men for offices work, community conferences, news alerts, and leisure such as gaming and music. The new literature showed that the same pattern of using smartphones between men and women is still the same PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CaXNlbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTY8L1llYXI+PFJl

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Bisen & Deshpande, 2016; Taywade & Khubalkar, 2019; Totten et al., 2005).

In addition, a study investigated how smartphone users attitudes, beliefs, and comprehension of various security issues may influence their security and privacy decisions. To provide quantitative perceptions on smartphone users attitudes toward a variety of important security features, such as locking mechanisms, app repositories, and Global Positioning System (GPS) location tracking service. Additionally, they determined the aspects that may influence the security practices of smartphone users. They next suggested some platform design and identifying what could cause and influence major behavioural modifications that might improve the security levels of smartphone users and investigated how users react to a variety of security features and developed a security model ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017).

Experience in using apps

Lane, (2012) defined that a mobile app, also well-known as an app, is a type of software programme that it is particularly designed to be implemented on mobile devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lane, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lane, Michael</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Does the android permission system provide adequate information privacy protection for end-users of mobile apps?</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lane, 2012). In the beginning, apps were simple and had limited functionality, such as gaming or mobile web browsing, then through the significant rise in the technology and usage of mobile devices, the mobile apps developed into complex software systems while their usage measured significantly. They developed to be more functional software that greatly expands the multifunctional capabilities of smartphones, in a varied range of app domain.

Wei et al., (2012) reported that there are different types of current mobile apps that are main ones: third-party and pre-installed. Third-party apps: apps created by software companies or individual developers are accessible for download via the Google Play Store and other online sources.

Pre-installed apps: apps that are pre-installed on the device from the manufacturers that make it. They are pre-installed in the device before it is ready to be sold and can be made by software companies or the sellers themselves. They can be created to satisfy several objectives for phone service providers (Wei et al., 2012).

The most common security threats that may pose risks to smartphone users on social networks are:sharing everything with others;posting full birth date, phone number, and address for all to see, including strangers, on a public profile;discussing personal difficulties with friends in public comments (or, worse, strangers); on SM, kids and teens encounter difficulties such as identity theft and cyberbullying;completely ignoring privacy preferences; clicking on any links that you come across; falling victim tofrauds online and participating in fake transactions.

Many studies have been carried out to see how people use their smartphones and how they affect them ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Girardello</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>249</RecNum><DisplayText>(Baeza-Yates et al., 2015; Girardello &amp; Michahelles, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>249</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">249</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Girardello, Andrea</author><author>Michahelles, Florian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>AppAware: which mobile applications are hot?</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Human computer interaction with mobile devices and services</secondary-title></titles><pages>431-434</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Baeza-Yates</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>247</RecNum><record><rec-number>247</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">247</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Baeza-Yates, Ricardo</author><author>Jiang, Di</author><author>Silvestri, Fabrizio</author><author>Harrison, Beverly</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Predicting the next app that you are going to use</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the eighth ACM international conference on web search and data mining</secondary-title></titles><pages>285-294</pages><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Baeza-Yates et al., 2015; Girardello & Michahelles, 2010). Some studies looked at the apps that users use and in what order and how they use them ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bhmer</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>248</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bhmer et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>248</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">248</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bhmer, Matthias</author><author>Hecht, Brent</author><author>Schning, Johannes</author><author>Krger, Antonio</author><author>Bauer, Gernot</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Falling asleep with Angry Birds, Facebook and Kindle: a large scale study on mobile application usage</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 13th international conference on Human computer interaction with mobile devices and services</secondary-title></titles><pages>47-56</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bhmer et al., 2011). Other researchers investigated how users install and uninstall apps on their smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Girardello</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>249</RecNum><DisplayText>(Girardello &amp; Michahelles, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>249</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">249</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Girardello, Andrea</author><author>Michahelles, Florian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>AppAware: which mobile applications are hot?</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Human computer interaction with mobile devices and services</secondary-title></titles><pages>431-434</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Girardello & Michahelles, 2010), while others predicted the apps users would open next ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Baeza-Yates</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>247</RecNum><DisplayText>(Baeza-Yates et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>247</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">247</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Baeza-Yates, Ricardo</author><author>Jiang, Di</author><author>Silvestri, Fabrizio</author><author>Harrison, Beverly</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Predicting the next app that you are going to use</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the eighth ACM international conference on web search and data mining</secondary-title></titles><pages>285-294</pages><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Baeza-Yates et al., 2015). While other researchers looked at widespread use data over time ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wagner</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>246</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wagner et al., 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>246</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">246</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wagner, Daniel T</author><author>Rice, Andrew</author><author>Beresford, Alastair R</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Device Analyzer: Large-scale mobile data collection</title><secondary-title>ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation Review</full-title></periodical><pages>53-56</pages><volume>41</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0163-5999</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wagner et al., 2014) and other topics like how people perceive their battery drain ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ferreira</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>220</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ferreira et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>220</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">220</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ferreira, Denzil</author><author>Dey, Anind K</author><author>Kostakos, Vassilis</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Understanding human-smartphone concerns: a study of battery life</title><secondary-title>International Conference on Pervasive Computing</secondary-title></titles><pages>19-33</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ferreira et al., 2011), (Andone et al., 2016).

Users Behavior

Although security knowledge is an important part of ensuring data protection, it is still insufficient unless it influences users behaviour as the awareness of a security breach does not imply that individuals can take preventive measures. The information and behaviour of the users should be considered when conducting any research (t et al., 2016).

Kruger and Kearney, (2006) described behaviour based on a users activities in different core areas such as downloaded material from malicious sites or distributed via SMS messages and Bluetooth are responsible for most mobile phone infections (Kruger & Kearney, 2006). Aspects of action in the sense of information security knowledge in smartphones have been addressed in previous studies such as a better understanding of how to consider smartphone users actions, gain a better understanding of aspects of smartphone protection, and quantify behaviour PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LcnVnZXI8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA2PC9ZZWFyPjxS

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Albrechtsen, 2007; Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Arachchilage & Love, 2014; Esmaeili, 2014; Kruger & Kearney, 2006; Mylonas et al., 2013).

The authors of most papers reviewed in this section; are trying to figure out how a user uses their smartphone in daily circumstances. Another method for assessing user activity in terms of information security is to examine how an individual behaves in a specific context or situation.

The current study used the user behaviour definition to clarify the two psychological components for characterising behaviour about mobile security based on the work on mobile security awareness evaluation PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BbmRyb3VsaWRha2lzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwv

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Esmaeili, 2014; Mylonas et al., 2013).

1. Preventive behaviour steps were taken by the user to minimise the likelihood of being attacked or subjected to an attack.

2. Confronting behaviour actions were taken by a user when facing a risk of security.

Installation and upgrading anti-virus software on a laptop, for example, is a preventive action while ignoring/deleting a phishing email is a confrontational action PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BbmRyb3VsaWRha2lzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwv

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Esmaeili, 2014; Mylonas et al., 2013). In fact, due to the importance of this matter, several studies on mobile users information security behaviours have been conducted PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Fc21hZWlsaTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTQ8L1llYXI+

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Das & Khan, 2016; Esmaeili, 2014; Hossain & Ahmed, 2016; Nam, 2013; Nowrin & Bawden, 2018). For example, Esmaeili, (2014) investigated the relationship between the factors that influence users mobile security behaviour. Their results showed that users with security expertise, experience and knowledge from a PC platform exhibited more secured behaviour on the mobile platforms.

Another study in 2018 proposed a model and their findings show that a comprehensive range of steps can be set up to reduce the risks associated with information security. The studys results show that University of Dhaka students have safe behaviour when it comes to avoiding risky behaviour, applying helpful settings and add-on utilities on the phones, and disaster recovery (Nowrin & Bawden, 2018).

Related research to information security behaviour of mobile user of 500 smartphone users before putting a proposed model to the test was conducted by Das and Khan, (2016), they wanted to see if there was a connection between users information security behaviours and their assessments of security threats and responses, as well as learn more about their concerns about specific threats. The research found that students were not acting securely in all aspects of using various security elements in the same way and that this differs by gender and across faculties and institutions (Das & Khan, 2016).

In a Saudi Arabia university, researchers investigated the use of smartphone among students. A survey was completed by 324 students from different academic levels and programmes. In the survey, 94.4% of respondents said they had a smartphone. The authors re-evaluated the patterns based on these data by classifying use into two categories: common use and learning use. According to the findings, most users used their devices as a daily mobile, a mini-computer with access to the Internet, and digital cameras ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alfawareh</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>13</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alfawareh &amp; Jusoh, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>13</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">13</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alfawareh, Hejab M</author><author>Jusoh, Shaidah</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphones usage among university students: Najran University case</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Academic Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Academic Research</full-title></periodical><volume>6</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>2075-4124</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alfawareh & Jusoh, 2014).

Academic use of smartphones for learning reasons was the subject of a research by Hossain & Ahmed, (2016) at Dhaka University. Questions about learning habits like logging in to educational accounts, using Blackboard, uploading class resources, and capturing lecture comments were asked to investigate the patterns in smartphone use for learning. Students used smartphones to access their academic platforms in 91.7% of cases. According to the findings, 60.9% of students never used Blackboard by their phones, 66.0% of students never used their smartphones to note down comments in a classroom, and 66.9% of users never used their phones for recording class lecture. They wanted to know how Dhaka University students used their smartphones to access academic information and what they thought about it. According to their findings, most university students use smartphones for academic work. They all, overall, had a favourable opinion on smartphone use in academia. Although there were some differences in terms of gender, age, place of origin, and length of smartphone use, these variations were caused by the fact that for most of the students who participated in the survey, smartphones are a relatively recent addition to their lives (Hossain & Ahmed, 2016).

Another researcher conducted a study on how students who own smartphones at a South Korean institution use their devices. Their results revealed that most of their usage is real time communication, instead of calling or searching the Internet, which was the most common use of smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nam</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>243</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nam, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>243</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">243</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nam, Sang-Zo</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Evaluation of university students utilization of smartphone</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Smart Home</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Smart Home</full-title></periodical><pages>175-182</pages><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1975-4094</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nam, 2013).

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Al-Emran & Shaalan, 2015; Ebiye, 2015; Maazer Al Fawareh & Jusoh, 2017; Moravec et al., 2015); ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Shaw</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>147</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kim et al., 2015; Shaw &amp; Tan, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>147</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">147</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Shaw, Christiana M</author><author>Tan, Sanda A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Integration of mobile technology in educational materials improves participation: creation of a novel smartphone application for resident education</title><secondary-title>Journal of surgical education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of surgical education</full-title></periodical><pages>670-673</pages><volume>72</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1931-7204</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kim</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>144</RecNum><record><rec-number>144</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">144</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kim, Sung-Eun</author><author>Kim, Jin-Woo</author><author>Jee, Yong-Seok</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Relationship between smartphone addiction and physical activity in Chinese international students in Korea</title><secondary-title>Journal of behavioral addictions</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of behavioral addictions</full-title></periodical><pages>200-205</pages><volume>4</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2062-5871</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kim et al., 2015; Shaw & Tan, 2015). The use of smartphones in learning, according to Shaw and Tan (2015), has allowed for increased knowledge acquisition and student involvement in the learning procedure ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Shaw</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>147</RecNum><DisplayText>(Shaw &amp; Tan, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>147</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">147</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Shaw, Christiana M</author><author>Tan, Sanda A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Integration of mobile technology in educational materials improves participation: creation of a novel smartphone application for resident education</title><secondary-title>Journal of surgical education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of surgical education</full-title></periodical><pages>670-673</pages><volume>72</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1931-7204</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Shaw & Tan, 2015). Additionally, Moravec et al., (2015) have shown that apps can help students improve their learning performance. As a result, the results of this study are congruent with those of other findings that show that the learning process has improved ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Moravec</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>146</RecNum><DisplayText>(Moravec et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>146</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">146</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Moravec, Tom</author><author>tpnek, Petr</author><author>Valenta, Petr</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The influence of using e-learning tools on the results of students at the tests</title><secondary-title>Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences</full-title></periodical><pages>81-86</pages><volume>176</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1877-0428</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Moravec et al., 2015). Smartphones and other mobile devices encourage individualizedlearning by enabling students to learn at their own convenience and speed ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Maazer Al Fawareh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>143</RecNum><DisplayText>(Maazer Al Fawareh &amp; Jusoh, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>143</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">143</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Maazer Al Fawareh, Hejab</author><author>Jusoh, Shaidah</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The use and effects of smartphones in higher education</title><secondary-title>Ijim</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ijim</full-title></periodical><pages>103</pages><volume>11</volume><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Maazer Al Fawareh & Jusoh, 2017). Another study investigated how well faculty members accepted mobile learning. The study revealed that faculty members welcomed the practice of mobile learning with some hesitation toward its full usefulness compared to face-to-face learning. In the qualitative phase in their study, 17 basic topics and three organising themes were identified after the data was integrated and summarised. These themes included the advantages of mobile learning, its disadvantages and limitations, and the infrastructure needed to implement mobile learning successfully ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mohammadi</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>97</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mohammadi et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>97</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">97</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mohammadi, Mehdi</author><author>Sarvestani, Maryam Shafiei</author><author>Nouroozi, Sahar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile phone use in education and learning by faculty members of technical-engineering groups: concurrent mixed methods design</title><secondary-title>Frontiers in Education</secondary-title></titles><pages>16</pages><volume>5</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><publisher>Frontiers</publisher><isbn>2504-284X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mohammadi et al., 2020).

Smartphone problemsSmartphone technology has advanced along with a great rate in the recent years. Currently, a smartphone provides a variety of services similar to those a computer can. Smartphone contains a variety of data, including mailinginformation, including calling, messaging, and other informationwhich are essential to us. As a result, we must be suresmartphone's privacy and security.

The usage of advanced OSs, apps, hardware, and other components makes smartphones robust and safe, yet they are not adequate on their own to protect users' privacy. because security and privacy issues are increasing. Smartphone security and privacy concerns reflect the environment of computer threats to some extent. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Zaidi</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>312</RecNum><DisplayText>(Zaidi et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>312</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177917">312</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zaidi, Syed Farhan Alam</author><author>Shah, Munam Ali</author><author>Kamran, Muhammad</author><author>Javaid, Qaisar</author><author>Zhang, Sijing</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for smartphone device</title><secondary-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</full-title></periodical><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>2158-107X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Zaidi et al., 2016) states that there are four areas of smartphone issues: attacks, authorization, vulnerabilities, and data protection and privacy.

2635252070735Figure STYLEREF 1 s 2 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 3: Categorization of Smartphone Problems adopted from ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Zaidi</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>312</RecNum><DisplayText>(Zaidi et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>312</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177917">312</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zaidi, Syed Farhan Alam</author><author>Shah, Munam Ali</author><author>Kamran, Muhammad</author><author>Javaid, Qaisar</author><author>Zhang, Sijing</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for smartphone device</title><secondary-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</full-title></periodical><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>2158-107X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Zaidi et al., 2016)

00Figure STYLEREF 1 s 2 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 3: Categorization of Smartphone Problems adopted from ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Zaidi</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>312</RecNum><DisplayText>(Zaidi et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>312</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177917">312</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zaidi, Syed Farhan Alam</author><author>Shah, Munam Ali</author><author>Kamran, Muhammad</author><author>Javaid, Qaisar</author><author>Zhang, Sijing</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for smartphone device</title><secondary-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</full-title></periodical><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>2158-107X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Zaidi et al., 2016)

Authorization

Attacks

Vulnerabilities

Data protection and privacy

Smartphone problem

Authorization

Attacks

Vulnerabilities

Data protection and privacy

Smartphone problem

Data security and privacy

The issue of data protection and privacy was discovered by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Muslukhov</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>311</RecNum><DisplayText>(Muslukhov et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>311</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177761">311</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Muslukhov, Ildar</author><author>Boshmaf, Yazan</author><author>Kuo, Cynthia</author><author>Lester, Jonathan</author><author>Beznosov, Konstantin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Understanding users&apos; requirements for data protection in smartphones</title><secondary-title>2012 IEEE 28th International Conference on Data Engineering Workshops</secondary-title></titles><pages>228-235</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>0769547486</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Muslukhov et al., 2012), who also discussed the kinds of data a user wants to protect on their smartphone. The authors also demonstrated how the required security protection varies for the different types of information. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Muslukhov</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>310</RecNum><DisplayText>(Muslukhov, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>310</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177620">310</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Muslukhov, Ildar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Survey: Data protection in smartphones against physical threats</title><secondary-title>Term Project Papers on Mobile Security. University of British Columbia</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Term Project Papers on Mobile Security. University of British Columbia</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Muslukhov, 2012) highlighted a different recent investigation in whichthe issue of data protection and privacy and demonstrated how regular updating of the smartphone lock screen for user authentication and accessibility increases the level of security and protection.

Attacks

Every smart device, including a smartphone, laptop, tablet, etc., is susceptible to similar attacks. Old attacks and new attacks on smartphones are two categories of attacks. Attacks from the past have included physical violence, various smartphone viruses, backdoors, threats, Trojans, various kinds of malware, worms, radio and wireless network attacks, and spam attacks. New attacks include control-flow attacks, SMSattacks, camera-based attacks, counterattacks, relay attacks, andDOS attacks.

Authorization

According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Zaidi</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>312</RecNum><DisplayText>(Zaidi et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>312</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177917">312</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zaidi, Syed Farhan Alam</author><author>Shah, Munam Ali</author><author>Kamran, Muhammad</author><author>Javaid, Qaisar</author><author>Zhang, Sijing</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for smartphone device</title><secondary-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</full-title></periodical><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>2158-107X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Zaidi et al., 2016) there are three ways to obtain authenticity. The first step is to obtain the password, code, or PIN that the actual user of the smartphone uses for authentication. For instance, if someone stealthily obtains your smartphone and is aware of the PIN, password, or code which you use, a smartphone can readily obtain your personal information. The second is to determine which users have used a particular code to authenticate their smartphone. The third step entails obtaining the user-provided fingerprint, also referred to as a biometric.

Vulnerabilities

The weak points of a smartphone are its vulnerabilities, which lead to a variety of issues like the security of personal data being compromised, privacy being violated by malicious attackers, etc. Users are generally unaware of their personal information because their smartphone is usually where they log into their e-mail, social networking accounts etc... The weak points of smartphones have various components, including a lack of knowledge of personal information stored on them, system errors, in secureapps, unreliable wireless networks, etc. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ali</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>313</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ali et al., 2019; Zaidi et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>313</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666178178">313</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ali, Md Nawab Yousuf</author><author>Rahman, Md Lizur</author><author>Jahan, Ifrat</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security and privacy awareness: A survey for smartphone user</title><secondary-title>Editorial Preface From the Desk of Managing Editor</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Editorial Preface From the Desk of Managing Editor</full-title></periodical><volume>10</volume><number>9</number><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Zaidi</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>312</RecNum><record><rec-number>312</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177917">312</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zaidi, Syed Farhan Alam</author><author>Shah, Munam Ali</author><author>Kamran, Muhammad</author><author>Javaid, Qaisar</author><author>Zhang, Sijing</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for smartphone device</title><secondary-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International journal of advanced computer science and applications</full-title></periodical><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>2158-107X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ali et al., 2019; Zaidi et al., 2016).

Attacks are the most common of all these different types of smartphone issues. There are two different types of attacks: new and old. The smartphone is affected differently by each of the attacks.

Security and privacy risksSmartphones have access to various services where security is essential and store increasing amounts of sensitive and personal data, including photos, contact information, and emails (e.g., bank accounts, mobile payment apps, apps with saved credit cards, etc). Their devices are therefore susceptible to security and privacy issues brought on by criminal attacks. There are numerous ways to attack passcodes, PINs, pattern locks, facial recognition, and fingerprint scanners. Since smartphones are a common target for security threats, protecting access to them is essential. PINs, passwords, and touchscreen patterns are just a few of the authentication techniques that users can use to secure their devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dhandapani</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>348</RecNum><DisplayText>(Dhandapani et al., 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>348</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667077142">348</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dhandapani, Gloria</author><author>Ferguson, Jamie</author><author>Freeman, Euan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Hapticlock: Eyes-free authentication for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction</secondary-title></titles><pages>195-202</pages><dates><year>2021</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Dhandapani et al., 2021).Some academics have focused their work on examining the privacy and security effects of the risky behaviour of smartphone users. Other researchers have investigated the possibility of monitoring mobile communication and collecting individually recognisable information from the traffic transmitted, while others have determined the categories of sensitive data that malicious attacker could take from their victims' mobile devices. Researchers showed the vulnerability of popular and frequently used mobile VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) apps to unauthorised interception PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Qb2toYXJlbDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTc8L1llYXI+

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Azfar et al., 2014, 2016; Pokharel et al., 2017). They discovered that users communication using VoIP apps are not secure all the time, making it easier for malicious decoding of captured data. Some VoIP apps do not provide appropriate documentation informing users that their videos, audios, or text communication over particular VoIP platform might not be encrypted ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Azfar</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>94</RecNum><DisplayText>(Azfar et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>94</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">94</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Azfar, Abdullah</author><author>Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond</author><author>Liu, Lin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android mobile VoIP apps: a survey and examination of their security and privacy</title><secondary-title>Electronic Commerce Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Electronic Commerce Research</full-title></periodical><pages>73-111</pages><volume>16</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>1572-9362</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Azfar et al., 2016). The majority of personal data types that mobile apps collect can also be recovered from the traces left on users smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Azfar</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>94</RecNum><DisplayText>(Azfar et al., 2016; Choo et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>94</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">94</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Azfar, Abdullah</author><author>Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond</author><author>Liu, Lin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android mobile VoIP apps: a survey and examination of their security and privacy</title><secondary-title>Electronic Commerce Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Electronic Commerce Research</full-title></periodical><pages>73-111</pages><volume>16</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>1572-9362</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Choo</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>91</RecNum><record><rec-number>91</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">91</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond</author><author>Farnden, Jody</author><author>Martini, Ben</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Privacy Risks in Mobile Dating Apps</title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Azfar et al., 2016; Choo et al., 2015). Researchers were able to obtain key facts about bank account and financial behaviours from banking apps ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Choo</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>91</RecNum><DisplayText>(Choo et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>91</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">91</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond</author><author>Farnden, Jody</author><author>Martini, Ben</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Privacy Risks in Mobile Dating Apps</title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Choo et al., 2015), for example. It was also discovered that social networking apps (such as Twitter and LinkedIn) installed on smartphones might be used to reveal users personal information and identify their socially situations ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Norouzizadeh Dezfouli</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>90</RecNum><DisplayText>(Norouzizadeh Dezfouli et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>90</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">90</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Norouzizadeh Dezfouli, Farhood</author><author>Dehghantanha, Ali</author><author>Eterovic-Soric, Brett</author><author>Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Investigating Social Networking applications on smartphones detecting Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Google+ artefacts on Android and iOS platforms</title><secondary-title>Australian journal of forensic sciences</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australian journal of forensic sciences</full-title></periodical><pages>469-488</pages><volume>48</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0045-0618</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Norouzizadeh Dezfouli et al., 2016).

As smartphone technology advances, its uses expand to include security-related apps that require security. A study performed by Peng et al., (2016) investigated and quantified the design and content features of health apps that help usage from the users perspective. And, while there are many health-related mobile apps available today, many smartphone users do not use them after a short time of primary use, are resistant to using them at all, or are unaware that such apps exist. The goal of their research was to look at and quantify the content features of health apps and their design that help usage from the users point of view (Peng et al., 2016).

Smartphones have access to various services where security is essential and store increasing amounts of sensitive and personal data, including photos, contact information, and emails (e.g., bank accounts, mobile payment apps, apps with saved credit cards, etc). Their devices are therefore susceptible to security and privacy issues brought on by criminal attacks. There are numerous ways to attack passcodes, PINs, pattern locks, facial recognition, and fingerprint scanners. Since smartphones are a common target for security threats, protecting access to them is essential. PINs, passwords, and touchscreen patterns are just a few of the authentication techniques that users can use to secure their devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dhandapani</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>348</RecNum><DisplayText>(Dhandapani et al., 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>348</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667077142">348</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dhandapani, Gloria</author><author>Ferguson, Jamie</author><author>Freeman, Euan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Hapticlock: Eyes-free authentication for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction</secondary-title></titles><pages>195-202</pages><dates><year>2021</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Dhandapani et al., 2021).Chandramohan & Tan, (2012) investigated the security threats that could arise when installing unsafe apps on a smartphone. By analysing how these dangerous apps deceive users into believing that they are trustworthy and entertaining, and then use the users' personal information and sell it to third parties ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Chandramohan</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>286</RecNum><DisplayText>(Chandramohan &amp; Tan, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>286</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">286</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chandramohan, Mahinthan</author><author>Tan, Hee Beng Kuan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Detection of mobile malware in the wild</title><secondary-title>Computer</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer</full-title></periodical><pages>65-71</pages><volume>45</volume><number>9</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>0018-9162</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Chandramohan & Tan, 2012).

Work on security and privacy risks has been mainly concentrated on factors that may affect users decision to use mobile apps, pirated apps and app repositories. Harris et al., (2016) looked at the factors that affect users decision to use apps. Users were more concerned with protection when assessing threats, according to their results. When there is less threat, there is more self-confidence, which have an advantage of a greater desire to download apps. Users who perceive more protection have more confidence and perceive less risk. Furthermore, users who are more familiar with obtaining, purchasing, and installing apps have greater confidence and a lower perceived risk, according to the findings ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>11</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harris et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>11</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1608580497">11</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harris, Mark A</author><author>Brookshire, Robert</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Identifying factors influencing consumers intent to install mobile applications</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>441-450</pages><volume>36</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0268-4012</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harris et al., 2016).

A pirated app is released as a free version of a legitimate app outside of the official store. Pirated apps can steal credit cards, bank details, address books, passwords, and other information relevant to identity theft. These apps are one of the most common sources of malware and viruses on both smartphones and computers. Pirated smartphone appsare a typical way for malware to spread ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Zhou</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>177</RecNum><DisplayText>(Zhou et al., 2012; Zhou &amp; Jiang, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>177</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">177</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zhou, Wu</author><author>Zhou, Yajin</author><author>Jiang, Xuxian</author><author>Ning, Peng</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Detecting repackaged smartphone applications in third-party android marketplaces</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the second ACM conference on Data and Application Security and Privacy</secondary-title></titles><pages>317-326</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Zhou</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>176</RecNum><record><rec-number>176</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">176</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zhou, Yajin</author><author>Jiang, Xuxian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Dissecting android malware: Characterization and evolution</title><secondary-title>2012 IEEE symposium on security and privacy</secondary-title></titles><pages>95-109</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1467312444</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Zhou et al., 2012; Zhou & Jiang, 2012). Attackers frequently trick unsuspecting users of smartphones into installing malware posed as widespread and appealing apps. These apps are held on free to enter app repository that do not run app testing. These apps can get unnoticed into app repository that do not enable app testing. Similar in-app repository that use the walled-garden-model ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Barrera</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>174</RecNum><DisplayText>(Barrera &amp; Van Oorschot, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>174</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">174</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Barrera, David</author><author>Van Oorschot, Paul</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Secure software installation on smartphones</title><secondary-title>IEEE Security &amp; Privacy</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Security &amp; Privacy</full-title></periodical><pages>42-48</pages><volume>9</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><isbn>1540-7993</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Barrera & Van Oorschot, 2010), users frequently change (crack) the security model of the device (for example, in iPhone jailbreaking) to install free versions of apps that are not in the official app repository, which adds a protectionlayer against this risk. This alteration to the security model bypasses security procedures and might expose users to the risk of malware. Sixty-seven percent of the Greek respondents to a survey said they prefer pirated software to original ones. This proportion corresponds to a survey on PC software piracy conducted ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Market</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>173</RecNum><DisplayText>(Market, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>173</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">173</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Market, Shadow</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>BSA Global Software Piracy Study/International Data Corporation Business Software Alliance.2012//[ ]</title><secondary-title> : http://globalstudy. bsa. org/2011/downloads/study_pdf/2011_ BSA_Piracy_Study-Standard. pdf</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title> : http://globalstudy. bsa. org/2011/downloads/study_pdf/2011_ BSA_Piracy_Study-Standard. pdf</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Market, 2011), which revealed a high degree of piracy in Greece (61% while only 33% on average in the EU). Consequently, there is a good chance that users will become affected by Trojanized pirated apps.

With the lack of awareness on security for mobile usage combined with the increase of app usage, several studies focused on providing security ideas. With that, on the other hand, little research was conducted to investigate the users experience of using smartphones and apps. So, this study will consider this issue important.

Factors that influence smartphone usageSome studies have investigated if there are any differences among demographic factors such as genders, age group, and level of education. Smartphoneshaveanenormousimpacton the attitude and usage pattern of usersof all age groups(Van Deursen et al., 2015). When analysing the usage patternsofusers, moststudiesfoundthat young users access smartphonesmore often than older adults to satisfy their needs and be involved in the societies. According to demographic characteristics, younger adults between 21 and 30 years old are more likely to access the Internet via a smartphone. They mainly use it to communicate with others and plan their life, while older users use their smartphones less, as a result, they have better self-management and decrease their social pressure (Van Deursen et al., 2015).

Furthermore, the most contradicting factors in the existing studies related to phishing attacks are gender, age, and education level, which are constantly explored in phishing victimization PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaGVuZzwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Griffin, 2018; Marriott, 2018; Sheng et al., 2010).Research has also found a significant gender difference in security awareness as well as in users attitudes (Ophoff & Robinson, 2014; Pramod & Raman, 2014).

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alseadoon et al., 2015; Griffin, 2018; Halevi et al., 2013). However, because most of such studies described on restricted samples, primarily university students, these results are difficult to generalize. Experience of device usage, and gender, have recently been discovered to be the greatest important determinants of the users abilities to detect phishing attacks, among many other demographic factors studied ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Iuga</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>160</RecNum><DisplayText>(Iuga et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>160</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">160</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Iuga, Cristian</author><author>Nurse, Jason RC</author><author>Erola, Arnau</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Baiting the hook: factors impacting susceptibility to phishing attacks</title><secondary-title>Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences</full-title></periodical><pages>1-20</pages><volume>6</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>2192-1962</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Iuga et al., 2016). Several studies also suggest that there are gender differences in technology and smartphone access (Krithika & Vasantha, 2013; Lee et al., 2014; Van Deursen et al., 2015; Kumar & Arulchelvan). Men spend more time than women using their devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Devs-Devs</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>199</RecNum><DisplayText>(Devs-Devs et al., 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>199</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">199</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Devs-Devs, Jos</author><author>Peir-Velert, Carmen</author><author>Beltrn-Carrillo, Vicente J</author><author>Toms, Jos Manuel</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Screen media time usage of 1216 year-old Spanish school adolescents: effects of personal and socioeconomic factors, season and type of day</title><secondary-title>Journal of adolescence</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of adolescence</full-title></periodical><pages>213-231</pages><volume>32</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2009</year></dates><isbn>0140-1971</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Devs-Devs et al., 2009). They have more technical ability, whereas females are active more on social communications.

Men use smartphones for work purposes, whereas women use them for social purposes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lenhart</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>200</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lenhart et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>200</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">200</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lenhart, Amanda</author><author>Purcell, Kristen</author><author>Smith, Aaron</author><author>Zickuhr, Kathryn</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social Media &amp; Mobile Internet Use among Teens and Young Adults. Millennials</title><secondary-title>Pew internet &amp; American life project</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pew internet &amp; American life project</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lenhart et al., 2010). Men are more likely than women to adopt technology, which makes them more challenging to use. Women who are aware of their problematic technology use, theyreduceusing it ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rotsztein</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>198</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rotsztein, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>198</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">198</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rotsztein, Brian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Problem Internet use and locus of control among college students: Preliminary findings</title><secondary-title>35th annual conference of the New England educational research organization</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-13</pages><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Rotsztein, 2003).These insights into technology and science are based on the literature. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Muhanna</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>193</RecNum><DisplayText>(Muhanna, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>193</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">193</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Muhanna, Wafa&apos;N</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>University Students&apos; Attitudes towards Cell Phone Learning Environment</title><secondary-title>International journal of interactive mobile technologies</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</full-title></periodical><volume>3</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2009</year></dates><isbn>1865-7923</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Muhanna, 2009) discovered that students in a learning environment have positive attitudes toward smartphone usage, although this trend had a stronger influence on men than women. Due to worry, ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Navabi</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>196</RecNum><DisplayText>(Navabi et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>196</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">196</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Navabi, Nasrin</author><author>Ghaffari, Fatemeh</author><author>Jannat-Alipoor, Zahra</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Older adults attitudes and barriers toward the use of mobile phones</title><secondary-title>Clinical interventions in aging</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clinical interventions in aging</full-title></periodical><pages>1371</pages><volume>11</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Navabi et al., 2016) discovered that older people perceive using smartphones negatively. Females have lower confidence scores than males, according to the same study (71.66% female and 72.85% male) on average, some smartphone users check their smartphones 34 times a day even if there are no updates available as stated in ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Oulasvirta</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>192</RecNum><DisplayText>(Oulasvirta et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>192</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">192</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Oulasvirta, Antti</author><author>Rattenbury, Tye</author><author>Ma, Lingyi</author><author>Raita, Eeva</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Habits make smartphone use more pervasive</title><secondary-title>Personal and Ubiquitous computing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Personal and Ubiquitous computing</full-title></periodical><pages>105-114</pages><volume>16</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1617-4917</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Oulasvirta et al., 2012).

The studies described have shed light on how smartphone users attitudes toward smartphones can be positive or negative. The work in this thesis built on this foundation by classifying attitudes about smartphones into two groups: positive, and negative (Kumar & Arulchelvan).

Gender gaps have often been a significant consideration when studying some behaviour phenomena in social sciences. This aids scholars, educators, researchers, and policymakers in better understanding the issue by supplying important demographic data. As with any other behaviour, there are major differences in smartphone behaviours among genders (Taywade & Khubalkar, 2019). There is enough evidence from similar research to suggest that there are gender differences in mobile use preferences for both males and females. Furthermore, studies have shown that all genders have distinct patterns of Internet use. In the past, men were more likely to be involved in problematic computer and Internet use. Some studies showed that mobile phone use is gender-neutral (Lee et al., 2018). Whereas other studies showed that the problematic use of digital media has been influenced by gender differences too ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lee</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lee et al., 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1608053006">3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lee, Seung-Yup</author><author>Lee, Donghwan</author><author>Nam, Cho Rong</author><author>Kim, Da Yea</author><author>Park, Sera</author><author>Kwon, Jun-Gun</author><author>Kweon, Yong-Sil</author><author>Lee, Youngjo</author><author>Kim, Dai Jin</author><author>Choi, Jung-Seok</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Distinct patterns of Internet and smartphone-related problems among adolescents by gender: Latent class analysis</title><secondary-title>Journal of behavioral addictions</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of behavioral addictions</full-title></periodical><pages>454-465</pages><volume>7</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>2062-5871</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lee et al., 2018); (Taywade & Khubalkar, 2019). However, they have several reasons for using phones such as communication, entertainment, and everyday life needs.

As demonstrated by Lee et al., (2018), the problematic usage of digital media has major gender differences. These differences between males and females are primarily due to a psychosocial, a biological, and a sociocultural difference (Lee et al., 2018). Males use smartphones for pleasure and relaxation, while females use them for social interactions (Rashid, et al., 2020). Males also use the Internet more often for gaming, entertainment, and shopping ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bisen</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>315</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bisen &amp; Deshpande, 2016; Taywade &amp; Khubalkar, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>315</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666179251">315</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bisen, Shilpa</author><author>Deshpande, Yogesh</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>An analytical study of smartphone addiction among engineering students: a gender differences</title><secondary-title>The International Journal of Indian Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The International Journal of Indian Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>70-83</pages><volume>4</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Taywade</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>245</RecNum><record><rec-number>245</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">245</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Taywade, Aachal</author><author>Khubalkar, Rupashree</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Gender differences in smartphone usage patterns of adolescents</title><secondary-title>The International Journal of Indian Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The International Journal of Indian Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>516-523</pages><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bisen & Deshpande, 2016; Taywade & Khubalkar, 2019).

The findings of Taywade & Khubalkar, (2019) revealed that there are major differences between how men and women use smartphones. Since women use smartphones significantly more often than men do, they looked into the reasons of this problematic behaviour (Taywade & Khubalkar, 2019). Compared to men, women are more likely to use social networking sites and messaging apps, the population was 348,200 comprising 53 percent men and 47 percent women, 60% of males use it consistently while 73.33% of females also use it consistently according to (Anshari et al., 2016).

However, several studies showed that males use smartphones more frequently than females do. Andone et al., (2016) in their study, they examined how differences in individual demographics, such as gender, age and effect of smartphone usage. They chose a total of 30,677 users, 16,147 males and 14,523 females, with a median age of 21. Their findings revealed that younger generation used their smartphones for longer periods of time and that most of their usage was focused on social communications and entertainment through particular apps, whereas older users used their smartphones for shorter periods of time or used them as a traditional phone. They also discovered that females use smartphones for greater amounts of time than males. They observed that age and gender have a significant impact on the volume of apps usage and phone types. Younger users communicate more and consequently use SM apps more often. Younger users might have different demands when it comes to smartphones usage. They may surf heavily on social media or educational purposes. However older adults might surf news websites and rely on the smartphones to organize their tasks.

Nowrin & Bawden, (2018) stated that there is a significant research gap in terms of information security knowledge and behaviour when it comes to smartphone use, and there is a need for a larger sample size to explore the information security among students at various locations which allow the investigator to understand the elements may influence the information security behaviour and knowledge (Nowrin & Bawden, 2018).

A study in 2016 which included 589 Bruneians, looked at smartphone usage patterns across key categories like gender, age, education, and occupation. The findings of their work provide insight into the occurrence of smartphone usage by the users, as well as their preferences and behaviour, particularly among the young generations with social problems such as narcissistic personality disorder. In addition to documenting the experiences of smartphone users, the study investigated personality tendencies associated with smartphone use, trends among various age groups, and the effects of gender preferences. Two-thirds of respondents said they used their smartphones for more than 6 hours every day, according to the results. These high numbers, combined with the fact that over 46% of users said they could not live without their devices, raise the possibility psychological conditions such as nomophobia and phubbing already exist or will rise in the sample. This is particularly important for the younger adults, who account for most smartphone users (Anshari et al., 2016).

According to the study by Lewis and Vohra (2014), 80% of users use smartphones to connect to e-mails and get and send messages ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lewis</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>223</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lewis &amp; Vohra, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>223</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">223</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lewis, TL</author><author>Vohra, RS</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphones make smarter surgeons</title><secondary-title>Journal of British Surgery</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of British Surgery</full-title></periodical><pages>296-297</pages><volume>101</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0007-1323</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lewis & Vohra, 2014). Gender differences in security knowledge and attitude have also been discovered in research (Pramod & Raman, 2014; Ophoff & Robinson, 2014; Bagga et al., 2017). Students in high level of education are not ignorant of security issues, however, they are unaware of all security dangers and procedures, according to a survey by (Pramod & Raman, 2014). They investigated the differences in perceptions of security awareness levels and behaviours across IT/non-IT graduates and different genders and found that most people did not see any significant disparities between the categories. However, significant differences were discovered in some categories, with males surpassing females and IT graduates outnumbering non-IT graduates being better educated about security threats and more cautious when using smartphones. They have also discovered unusual difference in the security knowledge of users as well as their attitudes among gender groups (Ophoff & Robinson, 2014; Pramod & Raman, 2014).

Moreover, a study focused on users perceptions of locking mechanisms, backups, and app permission requests were also examined in the previous study. They found that there is a lack ofstudies in the literature that look at the connections between different security behaviours while also addressing users' perceptions of storing their photos in apps, connecting to public Wi-Fi, using mobile instant messages, and using GPS on their smartphones (Alsaleh et al., 2017).

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Bomhold, 2013; Lepp et al., 2013; Lepp et al., 2015). Nevertheless, there is just a little empirical study on the use of smartphones in academic contexts, particularly in developing countries universities. According to the findings by Koyuncu & Pusatli, (2019), participants awareness levels are low, and they need to increase significantly. The old groups have the low level, followed by the younger groups in terms of age. The level of education has a beneficial effect on awareness in general. IT awareness is another component that contributes to a higher level of security ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019). There is a significant research gap in terms of information security knowledge and behaviour when it comes to smartphone use ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nowrin</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>276</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nowrin &amp; Bawden, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>276</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">276</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nowrin, Shohana</author><author>Bawden, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Information security behaviour of smartphone users</title><secondary-title>Information and Learning Science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information and Learning Science</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>2398-5348</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nowrin & Bawden, 2018). This study aimed to counter this by investigating smartphone users security awareness in particular, knowledge, behaviours, attitude, and experiences.

Safe mobile device use is becoming a condition for successful and transparent work, both personally and professionally. According to the research provided in their paper ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Markelj</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>280</RecNum><DisplayText>(Markelj &amp; Bernik, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>280</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">280</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Markelj, Bla</author><author>Bernik, Igor</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Safe use of mobile devices arises from knowing the threats</title><secondary-title>journal of information security and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>journal of information security and applications</full-title></periodical><pages>84-89</pages><volume>20</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2214-2126</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Markelj & Bernik, 2015)workplace safety in cyberspace is dependent on users awareness of dangers and their ability to respond appropriately to them. Based on their findings, it was found that users awareness should be increased, users should be notified of risks, and they should receive the appropriate training in cyberspace work safety.

Awareness of Cyber Security on SmartphonesLack of Cyber Security Awareness The critical assessment of the study by Mai & Tick (2021), requires the findings of the theme of awareness of cybersecurity on smartphones, especially by the analysis of the participants from Vietnam and Hungary. The study here showcases that Hungarian students have heard the term cybersecurity and have moderate knowledge regarding the same. It has been found that students who have heard the term, despite having higher or lesser knowledge of it showed interest to learn more. Whereas the ones who were unaware of this issue denied learning anything. It has also been found from this article that, university students of these two nations are often unaware or lack the knowledge to detect if their phones are hacked, or virus infected or not. In the study of Mai & Tick (2021), there have been substantial results and findings which will not only increase the development of future studies but will also guide for carrying out the same. The research methodology used here is the method of quantitative research with the assistance of SPSS research procedures. This is the method by which quantitive data are analysed and programmed with the help of software programs for scrutinising and calculating the data with utmost clarity and precision. However, one of the research limitations of this study is the methodology of the quantitative research approach. There may be certain constraints when examining student smartphone users' awareness of cybersecurity using a quantitative methodology with SPSS. This constraint results from the use of closed-ended survey questions, which might stop respondents from entirely conveying their ideas or giving context for their answers. Additionally, using SPSS as a tool for statistical analysis has its problems. SPSS is less suited for dealing with qualitative or mixed-methods data because it is primarily made for analysing quantitative data. This limits the researcher's capacity to obtain significant qualitative data that might advance a more thorough grasp of the subject. Apart from these, using the mentioned research technique the study by Mai & Tick (2021) has restricted the scope of research in the area of awareness and cybersecurity by eradicating the unexpected and unanticipated activities of young smartphone users. The openness would have been possible for the research if they undertook a qualitative methodology of finding and addressing the research question.These issues are omitted by the restricted quantitative research which comprehensively focused on the issue of survey questions only. For future research analysis which will take up the theme of awareness for the cyber security of smartphone users belonging to the young generation, qualitative research techniques, or mixed methodologies must be adopted by which the researchers will not only be able to quantify data required for bringing results but will also have a touch of in-depth exploration of the rationale behind such data. In the study here, another research gap has been identified here is the way the study by Mai & Tick (2021), only encompasses their research in two nations of Vietnam and Hungary. This ignorance of the global phenomena of the requirement of cyber security in the whole world and emphasise to understand two nations only is one of the most essential research lacunae that has been found. This eliminates all the possibilities of developing the ideas mentioned in the research paper in the global context as the understanding of the lack of interest, knowledge and varied attitudes are only limited to two nations namely, Vietnam and Hungary. The study fails to understand that, quantitative data of two nations will never be enough to analyse the global scenario of cyber security issues, and the magnitude of the potential compromising factors is ignored. In the study of Ali, Rahman, & Jahan, (2019), it has been found that almost sixty per cent of people installed third party apps from unknown sources. This piece of information reflects the lack of awareness that majority of the smartphone users portrays. The study also shows that, another sixty per cent usersare not aware about their smartphone security and privacy, threatening their sensitive data to the hackers. However, this quantitative value that the study provides has a limited level of justification. The study does not delve deep into the investigation as to why there is more than sixty per cent smartphone users still unaware. This absence of justification can be considered one of the major limitations of this study. Digitalisation and the growth behind smartphone usageAccording to the study by Taha & Dahabiyeh (2021), this digitised world system has made it mandatory for all to carry a smart device and smartphones have been rapidly growing due to their extensive demands. However, the authors of this piece of research paper argue in the opening that, this overproduction of smart devices especially cheaper-priced smartphones increases smartphone information security threats. The reason behind the overproduction of smartphones is digitalisation and the overusing of them especially by the youths. Thus, the researchers of this paper undertook the composition of the younger generation of college students and analysed their knowledge and behaviour regarding the theme of smartphone security awareness, which has an overarching presence even in the classrooms. However, one of the limitations that can be added here is that digital devices are multiple in the current times, comparing computers and smartphones does not suit well. This can be stated as both devices are fundamentally different from each other as they have different setups, both internally and externally. The study here could have taken tablets, smartwatches, tabs with connectivity and other minimal devices that are not extravagant like computers. Then the comparative study would have been better, with a minimal similarity in devices if not fully.The study by Taha& Dahabiyeh (2021), thus, emphasised majorly the concept of behaviour, or especially the behaviour of college students regarding the cybersecurity measures and awareness they possess for computers and smartphones. The results are quite contradictory to the statistics of device usage. However, the research here has a gap which it does not undertake which is the absence of a qualitative study. Authors in the end urge future researchers to undertake the path of qualitative research but failed to apply the approach to their analysis. This would have allowed the readers and the researchers to understand this impulsive, haphazard and dynamic behaviour of these young people regarding a grave issue such as cybersecurity and awareness. In the study of Taha & Dahabiyeh (2021), the main focus has been made on the quantitative research methodology which was again implemented in the online mode. This has been identified as the gap in the methods of the research by Taha & Dahabiyeh (2021). Firstly, quantitative techniques which have been undertaken by scholars were performed online, which not only undermines the approach of the results but also makes the results found from the survey questions extensively superficial and irrelevant. Online surveys, for example, are based on information that respondents provide themselves, which is vulnerable to response bias and the orthodox perception of the participants. Participants may give half-hearted, negligible or partial information, which could have a detrimental effect on the honesty of the results. Online platforms may not accurately represent the target demographic as a whole, causing sampling bias. The sample's makeup and the applicability of the results can be affected by variables including internet availability, digital literacy, and participation willingness.The online quantitative survey often acts as the method by which participants often deny answering correctly and whole-heartedly. It is also possible that participants did not read the questions properly and answered the survey in a hurry which undermines the whole purpose of the research. This issue is quite a possibility in the online quantitative process, which limits the roles of the researchers to find this issue as well. Researchers and scholars will have no understanding and say regarding this matter. The study here acknowledges this gap and urges future research regarding the understanding of cyber security awareness to undertake qualitative research techniques which would have encompassed all the requirements and research lacuna as mentioned before. In the present times, the use of smartphones is increasing among university and school students. Numerous universities and schools have implemented online learning and classrooms which has increased the demand for using smartphones in academics. According to Abreu & Campos (2022), in today's fast-paced technological era smartphones are developed with alert mechanisms which enable students to manage and handle their internal and external activities in universities and schools. The production of smartphones are also enhanced in this age as the younger generation are in the constant of one. Smartphone developers in the current era do not utilize a conversation-based approach; rather, they apply machine learning and sentence-embedding methods with the main purpose of giving users privacy awareness and, therefore, complete control over their data. This is accomplished by avoiding the use of a conversation-based approach. Abreu & Campos (2022), also states that the overuse of smartphones by students in universities and schools is also one of the reasons for cyber security threats.However, under this subtheme, focus has been made of two articles that uses different approaches of research, the former using quantitative and the latter using qualitative. Howeverboth the article failed to address the innumerable underlying causes which instigates the usage of smartphones among the young generation which in turn leads to the compromisation of security. Time duration has led to limitations in the study. Due to lack of time, the researcher has not been able to identify effective and relevant information and evidence in the respective research. The absence of personal data and information about the participants has resulted in gaps in the study. The researcher has not been able to relate the importance and risk of cyber security among different demographics of the participants. Inadequacy of sample and design has led to inappropriate results and outputs which is assumed to be another gap in the study. Due to incorrect sample design, the outputs of the results have led to differences with the topic. On the other hand, the researcher did not have access to the required elements which are needed for performing particular research. This led to limited use of resources by the researcher which eventually led to negative results and outcomes. Furthermore, there are several reasons why research is conducted on a particular topic.The reason for performing the research has not been clearly stated by the researcher. The present research has not stated the risk factors which are essential for creating awareness among students about using smartphones. This is another gap that has been depicted in the literature review section of the research. The research should have illustrated some of the risks faced by students in using smartphones. This could have helped me???? in relating to the awareness of cyber security among students.The behaviour and personality traits of the students have also not been stated in the research paper which indicates another gap in the study. Furthermore, the researcher has inclined the paper towards a particular application thus excluding the cyber security issues in using smartphones. This is another gap in the study which leads to the exclusion of relevant information. The use of quantitative data in the paper has also led to gaps in gathering relevant information for the topic. The researcher could have used a mixed method technique which could have helped the individual gather insightful information about the topic. The sampling size elected for the research is minimal which indicates another reason for gaps in the present research.Awareness Knowledge of Single and National CommunitiesIn the study of Herkanaidu, (2020), it has been found that Thai Students are aware of the risk phenomena of computer viruses. This makes the Thai students of the participants extremely aware of their surroundings and this has reflected an understanding of the outreach of knowledge they possess in the matter of computer security. For instance, Herkanaidu, (2020), has found that Thailand young people come to know about these issues from social media platforms like Facebook. Alike the previous studies which followed the instances of Hungary and Vietnam, awareness regarding smartphones is less and cyber security threats are taken seriously for the issues of computers, as Thai parents immediately install automatic anti-virus. The study here reflects substantial limitations in the research it tries to understand the cyber security awareness agenda as a national aspect which is aimless. The limitations that will be discussed below outline the narrow approach in which a global phenomenon of cyber security, risks, performances, threats and analysis are addressed in a regional or national spectrum. This undermines the real picture and the threat cyber security and its risks provide. In the research paper of Herkanaidu, (2020), even though the paper has taken up the instances of various nations as the subject regions in which the scholar has undertaken their approach, the limitation of this study is that it emphasises the issue of cyber security awareness, especially in the regions of lower developed nations alone. This feature omits the happenings of the developed nations and their cyber security awareness. The aim which is upheld in the research paper here is the global issue of cyber security and certain elements associated with it. However, the concern is a global concern and not regional or confined to lower-developed nations. Regional understanding or national data of such themes are not sufficient enough for the cause and understanding of the theme. A universal study with a qualitative approach is required here for a better understanding of the cause. Regional and national data provide restrictive ideas by which the global issue of cyber security and the elements attached to it are not found. Thus, the study of Herkanaidu, (2020), despite having so many national examples is not substantial research. Mobile phone users are spread across the world and highly developed nations use the digital device more than the lowe developed nations. The research has restrictions when only low-developed countries are taken into account while high-developed states are left out of the research on students' awareness of cyber security. High-developed countries have a powerful infrastructure for technology and commonplace access to the web, which can have a big impact on initiatives for cyber security awareness and education. By disregarding these countries, substantial insights into best practices, efficient laws and effective awareness campaigns are lost, which can be useful for a thorough knowledge of cyber security awareness. The study by Cranfield et al., (2020), like the others again found the scenario of the lack of awareness students have over the issue that they require to protect their smartphones as well, and the protection of PCs is enough. Even though the study has outlined that the usage of smartphones especially by university students has increased, as educational institutions in the current times allow students to follow BYOD (Bring Your Own Device), still, awareness to protect their smartphones has not increased. It has been argued by the scholar that, students "actively" protect their computer systems however, they do not do the same thinking for their phones. The Welsh community and the students of it are aware of the term cyber security however, the majority of them do not act on it, as maximum students do not have a security and anti-virus application installed on their smartphones. The participants, results and analysis has been based on the Welsh Community. Thus, it is not feasible for the study and the findings of this study to be suitable enough for justifying and addressing similar incidents happening elsewhere. For that, research of such a particular region or a global approach must help the cause. This restrictive approach to understanding the behaviour, awareness and risk factors related to cyber security has been identified as one of the limitations of this study. In the study of Cranfield et al., (2020), It's feasible to overlook critical contextual factors that impact cyber security awareness when restricting the evaluation to a single population. Since cyber security is a worldwide issue, various parts of the world may face separate challenges cultural nuances, and educational systems that affect awareness levels. Thus, the conclusions might not be universal enough and might not accurately convey the multifaceted nature of the problem. The Welsh residents come from a varied range of socioeconomic strata, geographical regions, and colleges and universities. Exclusively focusing on this group leaves these inner differences out, which could result in young children having an inadequate grasp of cyber security awareness. By leaving other countries out, the scope of best practices and strategies that might help resolve cyber security issues is restricted. A single quantitative study could give a picture of young kids' understanding of cyber security at a specific moment. The research might be unable to spot patterns, modifications, and prospective advancements in cybersecurity knowledge over time without using a longitudinal approach. Both the studies here have mentioned and confined their findings to geographical expanses which come under the scrutiny of comparison. This attribute, however, is one of the shared limitations of these articles, as they failed to capture similar themes of awareness in the whole global scenario of smartphone users. According to the research paper by Tankiso Moletsane & Pitso Tsibolane, (2020), the awareness of high school young students is still in the developmental stage and they are yet to know much about the issues. The researchers found that South African high school students are aware of cyber security practices but not as much which holds the potential to eliminate the threat of cyber-attacks. However, this study here acknowledges the extensive importance of the requirement of cyber security training and the spread of education for bettering the situation for the future. This study, however, has a restrictive approach as it only emphasises solely the practices, participants and happening around the South African High School Students. This piece of study holds minimal relevance in the global scenario as it would be difficult to use as an instance of South Africa for the whole world. In the study of Tankiso Moletsane & Pitso Tsibolane, (2020), a similar research issue has been found. These studies reflect certain fundamental flaws in the design of their papers, as the majority of them still fail to understand the issue of cyber awareness as an issue of global relevance. The study here again undertakes the instance of south African high schools alone by eliminating the possibilities of other nations and their smartphone-using young population. First off, since there may be regional and national variances in cyber security awareness, it decreases the scope and universality of the findings. Other geographic contexts are left out, which throws out essential concepts and best practices from different educational institutions. Role in AcademiaAccording to Khader, Karam, & Fares, (2021), cybersecurity of smartphones and any other digital devices are global phenomena which require awareness or else it will bring "complex socio-technical challenges" in the daily functioning of state structures and normal population. In the instances found from the Kuwaiti Universities, the research paper found that the knowledge and attitude of the students regarding cyber security awareness are poor.The authors have emphasised that human error is the most essential and common issue which compromises cyber security threats. The study by Khader, Karam, & Fares, (2021), found that governments of Saudi Arabia, the USA and many modern nations have undertaken initiatives which also included infusing the same with the curriculum. Among them, Game-based learning was appraised as being one the oldest format of learning and incorporating skills.The research paper provides a comprehensive framework which is relevant and sincere to spread the message to smartphone users for securing their materials. This can be identified as a strength as this study provides a unique and holistic concept of CAFA (Cybersecurity Awareness Framework for Academia) which is based on transforming policies, bringing and redesigning educational policies. However, the study by Khader, Karam, & Fares, (2021), lacks to formulate the budgetary implications which might limit the implementation of CAFA in educational sectors. Budget restrictions can make putting ideas into motion fairly challenging. Resources can be restricted; research and development could become impaired and project scope can be limited by a lack of finance. Without appropriate monetary support, it becomes tough to implement plans efficiently, which degrades outcomes or causes efforts to be abandoned. The role of the instructors required to execute these plans is also avoided in the study. Thus, these areas of budget and instructors in the implementing and materialising CAFA are not discussed making it a research lacuna of this paper. The paper here fails to touch on the role of instructors in the implementation and guidance of cyber security eradication models. As the study has a literature gap which does not outline the role of instructors who put notions into practice. Their information, orientation, and experience can offer valuable guidance that can help to hone and sculpt thoughts into realistic programmes. Instructors may predict possible issues, provide feedback act as a mentor, and offer dedicated achievement suggestions. Behavior Toward Cyber Security on SmartphoneComparison of Behaviours of students using smartphonesThe article here by Mai & Tick (2021), undertakes an exhaustive CHIAD test in which the university students and smartphone users of Vietnam and Hungary are categorically divided based on their knowledge, attitude, perception and behaviour towards the issue of cybersecurity. Furthermore, social and political forces and factors also influences use of mobile technology (Campbell, 2007). It has been found here that, Hungary has the most ware and knowledgeable students who are majorly aware of the terms and functioning of cybersecurity. An uncertain group has also been identified who lack general knowledge, and awareness and has repulsive behaviour towards the absorption of knowledge regarding the same. This behaviour has been undertaken for further questioning and surveying by the researchers and it has been found that college students, or users anticipate that their computers are more vulnerable and carry a greater risk of getting attacked by the cyber malware. The researchers Taha & Dahabiyeh (2021), argue that this negligence might be coming from the issue that, there is a substantial knowledge and research gap that does not address the security threats that are there for smartphones as well.In the study of Alfawareh&Jusoh, (2014), it has been found that students are not sufficiently careful regarding the issue of their smartphone security. They are quite free to engage in certain risky activities, and the study here has found a demographic or rather a gender demarcation to it. It has been found that, men are more willing to engage in risky activities than women concerning their smartphone security. However, this study again has certain inherited limitations to it, for instance it is not only based on a specific geographical region but also in regional university. The temperament, upbringings and background of the participant from that educational institution was not considered before the research which adds to the limitations. One of the research gaps or the unexplored areas of this article is that it does not encompass the whole segment of the smartphone-using community which includes school students as well. If the researchers Mai & Tick incorporated the views, knowledge spectrum and behaviour of the school students regarding the issue of cybersecurity, then it would have been an interesting addition to the paper. However, there could have been another chance in which, school students being younger and closer to the digital world would know more about the relevance of the theme. The research limitation is the comprehensive absence of a qualitative approach to understand and analyse the uncertain section found in the CHAID assessment. The reasons behind the lack of knowledge and interest could have been found if the quantitative approach would have been supplemented by the qualitative approach. A mixed approach to study has always provided a better understanding of themes like this. Thus, a methodological approach if restricted to a single idea can harm the research aims, questions and themes. There are certain areas still left unanswered in this article which could have been found if the methodological technique were either qualitative or mixed approach. The article, however, projects a systematic and chronological approach with extensive emphasis on the knowledge and behaviour of university students, against the background of two different nations. The segregation of data and categorisation of the results can be identified as one of the strengths of this study.Usage of applications for students using smartphonesDifferent students have different personalities and perceptions while using smartphones. According to the assumptions of Abreu, & Campos (2022), several students use smartphones for a long duration without any awareness of cyber security which leads to serious issues and challenges. There have been several attempts made to mitigate the negative consequences of excessive use of smartphones. The findings of an application of the technology acceptance model to security behaviours indicate that users' intentions to adopt backups, anti-virus software, and personal firewalls are strengthened by perceived usefulness, peer and media influence, and self-efficacy (Das & Khan, 2016). Through the use of applications that monitor the use and impose self-imposed limits, a number of these tactics make an effort to reduce the potentially detrimental effects of excessive smartphone usage. In 2018, the leading providers of mobile operating systems, Google and Apple, integrated these solutions into their products by first releasing the Digital Wellbeing app and then the Screen Time app, respectively. In creating awareness and protecting the privacy of students certain mobile applications are developed with chatbots. According to Abreu, & Campos (2022), the chatbots have been implemented with a focus on minimizing the negative perception of students in protecting their personal information and data.In the present article written by Abreu, & Campos (2022), the information about using smartphones by students has been depicted with the presentation of different technologies and approaches. The illustration of the approaches and techniques showcases the strengths of the article. Another strength of the article is the demonstration of an application through a step-by-step process. The software architecture for creating privacy of data in smartphones has been depicted and presented in the article which is another reason for the strength of the article. Apart from strengths, the article also represents weaknesses. The article does not represent the privacy issues that students may face in their daily lives. This is one of the weaknesses of the article. Due to poor representation of the topic, it is difficult to identify the factors that lead to privacy issues in using smartphones.On the other hand, the article also consists of certain gaps and limitations. Due to lack of time, the study has not been performed efficiently and effectively which has led to a shortage of information. This is one of the limitations of the present article. Insufficient sample size is another area that has resulted in gaps in the article. The participants who were included in the sample size were not aware of the goals of the research which lead to gaps in collecting relevant and specific information related to the topic. This is another limitation that has been identified in the article.The behaviour of virus-infected smartphones is extremely unusual as found in the study by Herkanaidu, (2020). In the study, it has been shown that the Thai young generation does not take cyber security threats like viruses seriously in the case of smartphones. In such cases, they resort to turning on and off their devices and mostly resetting and reprogramming the hand device. This behaviour towards cyber security threats on smartphones by the young generation has been found elsewhere. The study has failed to notice the reasons behind this casual behaviour regarding the issue of cyber security. The study simply speculates and argues a guess, which is like whether being alone influenced their behaviour online or not. This speculation and a vague question prove the incompetence and research gap of this piece of article. In the research paper of Herkanaidu, (2020), there are substantial weaknesses that have been found. As mentioned earlier there is a substantial research gap which fails to address the awareness of highly developed nations and their population. In the behavioural aspect, the study here has presented certain vague comments as mentioned here. The research paper fails to provide a substantial explanation regarding the specific behaviour of Thai students. The researcher here took the instance of assuming this might happen against that. In research, there are no instances for assumptions and speculations, as it is the work of the research paper and the scholars to find and prove the speculation a reader has. If research papers currently speculate and assume then it will not provide any answer. As a quantitative research approach, the study fails to understand the real reason behind the specific behavioural approach on Thai students. Emphasis must have been made on the issue that whether being alone instigates the issue or not. And for that, the research was required to have a qualitative approach which could have provided the answer. Contradictory issues of using smartphones among studentsAccording to the study by Cranfield et al., (2020), the behaviour regarding cyber security on smartphones has resulted in certain contradictory issues. It has been understood that female students share their passwords with their male counterparts more, thus making their smartphones vulnerable. The behaviour related to the safeguarding and backing up of data is also divided as the fifty-one does and others do not. However, this study fails to elaborate on the rationale and the reason behind such activities and behaviours. In the study of Cranfield et al., (2020), the research paper has provided a finding that reflects a gender-diverse issue and a contradicting result. Here female and male dynamics are not explained as to why the former share their hard security tools more than the latter gender groups. Gender diversity and dynamic behavioural approaches even in the field of cyber security awareness and behaviours would have been one the pioneering research themes. Research in this category is extremely rare and must be taken into consideration for increasing the limits. Risk factors of cyber security threatsSmartphone cyber security risk factorThe digital imprint that people create, whether consciously or unwittingly, when using these technologies, as well as the cyberbullying and cyber security concerns that they confront, are topics that regularly make it into the agenda. According to Subasi et al., (2023), students and individuals need to have communication with their family members in case of cyberbullying. On the other hand, the article has used a survey method for identifying the issues of cyberbullying faced by individuals in specific regions. The use of specific regions has led to limitations of the study. On the other hand, the absence of qualitative data has also led to limitations in explaining the information and evidence. This is another limitation of the research. According to Gerber & Von Solms risk analysis is a vital component of cyber security. It is used to estimate and evaluate the risk that occurs within cyber security. Furthermore, cyber-attacks not only target students and individuals pursuing academics but also different sectors and industries. According to Lallie et al., (2021), cyberattacks in the present time have become more sophisticated and structured due to which individuals are falling easily into challenges and complications. In the present research, the timeline of the incidents has not been specified clearly which leads to limitations in the research. Griffin (2018) highlights that the prevalence and sophistication of phishing attacks have increased as a result of the widespread use of the internet and the value of the information contained within it. Furthermore, 2016 was the worst year ever for phishing, with 1.2 million attacks, 65% more than in 2015. This was according to the Anti-Phishing Working Group's 2016 report. On the other hand, the research methodology does not include the methods in an appropriate manner which has resulted in limitations for the research. As also found in the study of Abdulaziz Alzubaidi, (2021), there is a huge magnitude of cybercrime that operates in the revolutionised world of Information Technology. Risks like threats on valuable information for instance towards passwords and sensitive data. However, the study by Abdulaziz Alzubaidi, (2021), has certain inherited limitations. One of the major limitations regarding the issue of cybercrime, cyber security awareness and the role of young students in it are all based on the results found in Saudi Arabia. To understand the global phenomena of cybercrime activities and the risks associated with it, results of a single geographical land is not enough. Another limitation that has been found here is that, the results were based on quantitative online-based survey which has its own limitations. The study here acknowledges the limitations that majority of the participants were not aware of the theme of the research and they were also not enough educated in this background. This half-hearted approach towards collecting evidence acts as the major limitation. According to Tawalbeh et al., (2020), spoofing attacks are one of the cyber security issues that have emerged in the present times. The production of the protocol associated with unique IoT security may also be aided by the availability of multiple platforms, as well as a variety of simulation tools and modellers, all of which are able to validate this security protocol. In the present research paper, one of the biggest limitations is the absence of appropriate methodology techniques. The paper does not present the data collection and analysis method through which readers will be able to understand the research methodology process. This creates a huge limitation of the present research. In comparison to the article stated by Lallie et al., (2021), there are numerous limitations which have defined the reliability of the present research paper. In comparing both the research papers, it has been identified that the article written by Lallie et al., (2021) illustrates cybercrime and cyber-attacks while the latter focuses on privacy and confidentiality and the challenges and solutions of IoT. In comparison to the last two research papers, focus can be made on Lallie et al., (2021) which simply put the cybersecurity threats and failed to mention and discuss them in detail. However, in the article of Tawalbeh et al., (2020), risks are deceived with greater emphasis. But the study by Tawalbeh et al., (2020), has multiple fatal research flaws compared and as mentioned above.Web contents and cybersecurity issuesMany adversaries have started using the internet as a weapon for the spread of harmful material ever since it became an efficient and effective means of data sharing and dissemination. This is because the internet has advanced as a means of sharing and disseminating data.Therefore, access to dangerous information via the internet has also since developed into a multi-billion dollar problem that continues to influence a range of consumers daily. According to Akazue et al., (2022), despite numerous techniques and tools, students are still facing issues and challenges with cyber attacks and phishing in the present era of globalization. The involvement of malware and numerous advertisements on different websites has resulted in various cyber security attacks of which the students are not fully aware. Further Akazue et al., (2022) have also argued that due to the ease of gathering requirements from social sites students have engaged more with smartphones regardless of building and developing awareness about social sites and malware attacks. Even though there are many different kinds of cyber-security precautions in place, researchers in a variety of fields have started looking at how different components of psychology might put data at risk. According to Akazue et al., (2022), students use web content as a tool for reducing their isolation and stress of academic studies.Therefore, with these types of web contents, there are essential manipulates and indications that convince user confidence with several visual factors, which are linked to classification elements, poised to ask consumers inquiries that searched to find the presence of appropriate draws and/or indications within the fraudulent content to assist dividing of these materials into fundamental classes. In other words, there are relevant lures and cues to persuade user trust. In clearly presenting the topic the authors have also used sampling methods. Akazueet al., (2022) link the age of the students to risky behaviour which leads to issues of cyber security in using smartphones by students.Issues of demographics in cyber securityDemographic factors (such as gender and age) are prevalent factors that might impact susceptibility to phishing and scams. Previous research has shown that users between the ages of 18 and 29 are the most sensitive to online material. However, other research has found that female users between the ages of 24 and 42 are the most vulnerable.It has been suggested that young female adults are constantly engaged in activities to boycott social seclusion, which leads to addiction. On the other hand, overbearing online visibility and reliance on social media materials used are frequently relevant lures and cues for potential victimization by phishers and lead to them being subjected to associates. In the article, the participants were exposed to social engineering directives through fake scam emails. This allowed the authors to identify the perception and awareness level of the students towards scams and phishing on smartphones. This is one of the strengths of the article as it helped the authors to identify the behaviour patterns of the students towards using smartphones. Through the experiments carried out by the authors, it was revealed that students are more prone to cyber security attacks through mailbox access than any other websites.Akazue et al., (2022) assume that students have a fear of exams and projects which is one of the reasons for accessing mailboxes instead of any other sites. Hence, it can be considered a strength of the article as it depicts the causes of cyber security threats in the use of smartphones by undergraduate students. On the other hand, the awareness level of the students in using smartphones has not been presented which is considered to be a weakness of the article. Furthermore, measures and techniques for mitigating and reducing the issues of cyber security in smartphones have not been mentioned in the present article. This is another weakness of the article. Several different approaches could have been specified in the article however there is no such remark which defines the limitation of the article. The article states that undergraduate students need to be trained and provided with information about cybersecurity and its relationship with smartphones. However, it doesn't state the types of training programs that should be implemented for students which depicts the limitation of the article for the readers. Awareness level of cyber security has not been fully conveyed through the article which results in a gap.In this article, phishing has not been illustrated as one of the cyber security issues that can impact the smartphone usage of students. On the other hand, there is a lack of information about other relevant issues that may lead to cybersecurity challenges for students using smartphones. With the absence of other issues of cyber security, the paper has not been able to illustrate the topic clearly. This is one of the limitations which has been identified in the present research paper. The paper has described phishing and malicious web content as some of the factors that impact the situation of students using smartphones. However, the paper has not discussed and demonstrated the impacts that malicious web content and phishing can have on students using smartphones. The research paper tries to establish content based on the regions of Nigeria which is a limitation of the study. Students across the world face numerous issues and challenges with cyber security however the present research is limited to specific regions describing its limitations. On the other hand, the research is also limited to different demographics and gender which is considered to be another gap of the present research. The researcher could have illustrated different ways through which phishing and malicious content could be mitigated by the students. This is another area that has not been addressed in the preset paper resulting in a gap in the research. Ethical considerations are one of the vital elements in research while analyzing secondary and primary data and evidence. For the present research, there is no presence and explanation of ethical considerations in the research paper. It is difficult to identify whether the researcher has used confidentiality of the collected information or not. This is another gap in the present research.The research has not illustrated the research philosophy, approach, or strategy which indicates the gap in the research. Due to presenting information on phishing and malicious content, the study cannot be used for future research which is considered to be another limitation of the paper. Analyzing the entire research it can be assumed that the readers and audiences will not be able to gather enough information about the issues and complications one might face while using smartphones in the context of cyber security. This may limit the research in presenting useful and effective information about cyber security among students using smartphones.Cyber security issues in South Africa why specifically? Please focus on UK.According to a study by Herkanaidu, (2020), cyber threats are faced by almost ninety-three per cent of the South African youths who use the Internet. Smartphone users are multiple in the nation of South Africa and the Internet forms the main connecting line. Threats of cyber security can be of multiple types, and the study by Herkanaidu, (2020), exceptionally emphasises the personal individualistic threats one can face here. Situations like a data breach, loss of sensitive materials, and illegal creation of pornography have been identified as potential risk factors. Students of South Africa have identified the Internet as one of the most essential threats in the cyber security agenda. The study by Herkanaidu, (2020), has not only highlighted the threats of individuals on smartphone platforms but also addressed the fear behind the attacks of a virus and online scams. The researcher here has also identified a similar case of individualistic threat in the nation of Thailand where 43% of young students either faced misconduct or data mismanagement. In the research paper of Bitton et al., (2020), cyber security threats are innumerable and usually have a connection with the internet. The scholar here listed multiple varieties of threats faced by smartphone users likely that of, fake apps, spies and malware, fake links spread by SMS messages, and data hacking. The study here has also identified that the awareness skills which are required for dealing with cyber security are essentially different from the ones that attack smartphones and the ones that attack personal computers. Apart from the general risk factors mentioned beforehand, the study of Bitton et al., (2020), has focused on the issues that pose threats often, like connectivity. It has been seen in many occurrences that the Internet and Bluetooth connections have acted as security risk factors for users. Applications can also be infested with anti-security issues that might pose a threat to security. Malicious applications are posing threats to users. Advertisements, mostly pop-up ads can be harmful to the users as they often diverse and redirect main websites front to other web pages that are mostly virus and threat infested. Suspicious permission requests and spam challenges are also a few risk factors that might hamper the cyber security of smartphone users. However, this study failed to underline the modern aspects that Trojans, phishing and malware dysfunctionality are also impacting smartphones. This literature or research gap can be identified as one of the most essential gaps that require emphasis. One of the strengths and research excellence of this study is that it emphasises the issue of advertisement as a potential risk factor of cyber security, especially in digital devices. In the study of Bitton et al., (2020), the focus has only been made on the threats o smartphones and computers in different sections. However, the study fails to provide an insightful understanding that malicious applications and bots can hamper both mobiles and computers. Phishing, Trojans, and other online dangers can seriously compromise the security and privacy of users on both computers and smartphones. For instance, phishing scams entice people into exposing private information like passwords or debit or credit card numbers. These types of attacks are not just confined to PCs; they can also compromise personal information by targeting mobile devices through text messages, emails, or malicious apps. Similar to viruses, Trojans are harmful software that impersonates reputable programmes to provide hackers illicit access to a device. Once installed, they can carry out a variety of criminal tasks like stealing private data, taking remote control of the device, or even switching it into a web of bots. Malware, and ransomware, are additional cyber threats that can harm both computers and phones by taking into account security flaws to gain illicit access or trick users into doing things that endanger their security. It is essential to keep in mind that describing how these dangers affect computers and phones is essential for knowing the bigger picture of cybersecurity. Ignoring these issues as done in this study would stop a full grasp of the cybersecurity landscape generally and would blind people to potential risks on different platforms and devices.The study by Herkanaidu, (2020), focused on the actual threats and the difficult situation by which individuals will get harassed however the study by Bitton et al., (2020) focused mainly on the ways from which individuals and organisations can receive such threats and risk factors. Requirement of smartphones among individualsIn the research-themed paper of Cranfield et al., (2020), the study has identified several issues of security threats and challenges. The study here identifies the rise and requirement of smartphones in the world. It outlines the enhanced usage and popularity of smartphones and aligns with that it also addresses the foreboding threats and security challenges. The study by Cranfield et al., (2020), emphasised such a challenge which is a risk factor of cyber security threats. Data loss can be explained as one of the most essential and relevant threats in the cyber security issue. The study not only focuses on the issue of data loss but also the potentially harmful acts of invasion of privacy, financial loss and degraded functionalities. The researcher here underlines these as threats which essentially become risks without proper supervision. In the study of Cranfield et al., (2020), there are mention of a lot of relevant issues that are present in many nations across and the study reflects a holistic approach in its characteristic. However, removing the space in which the study can provide relevant solutions to the mentioned issues undermine the research paper. A drawback is there in the study here, by the lack of suggestions in the research regarding the elimination of risks a mobile-using student can face. For lawmakers, educators, and other stakeholders to execute successful programmes to increase cyber security awareness, proposals are essential. Without recommendations, the research results might not be put into practice, which would limit the possible effect on enhancing cyber security procedures and safeguarding mobile users.Risk of using the Internet for studentsIn the study of Tankiso Moletsane, & Pitso Tsibolane. (2020), the simple usage of Internet Broadband by students of higher secondary in their overly used smartphones can be a risk factor for cyber security threats. The study highlights the issue of breaching of sensitive information and the misuse of the same which is dangerous for both the students and the educational institutions. The study undertakes survey-based research in which it tries to outline the levels of awareness students have against the regional picture of South Africa. Cyber security attacks and threats over matters and risk factors such as Internet connectivity are the main themes of this research paper. This study identifies the Internet as a threat or a risk factor of cyber security however, it fails to elaborate on the point that in what ways Internet connectivity acts like one. It does mention the issues but there is a lack of definitive explanation that the Internet connection can increase malpractices of data breaching, phasing, and pop-up virus-infested advertisements which has extensive potential to harm cyber security. In the study of Aljaber, (2021), reflection towards the issue of substantial risk for the students in using smartphones are found. Risks like cyberbullying, distraction, leaking and hacking of sensitive data has been found in the work. However, the role of the Internet behind the curtail of smartphones were not paid much attention. Again, as found in many studies, the research paper by Aljaber (2021), lacks to reflect this image in the context of the global issue of cyber security threats. The focus has been made towards Saudi Arabia alone which limits the study to a greater extent. Another limitation that this study carries as acknowledged by the researcher themselves is that, the limited perspective attributed to the participants in the study. The participants as anticipated might have used biased perceptions while engaging in the activity of the interview. This in turn must have made the results unclear and unfit to use in any research. Education on cyber security has proven to be critical in offering awareness about the potential hazards of cyber security in using smartphones among students in schools. Eavesdropping is one of the recent risks that has been identified by experts and technical professionals. Intimate chats like this are often held over the internet, where they may be accessed by attackers. In the United States, for instance, the NSA and the FBI use programs like NarusInSight and Carnivore to listen in on communications happening across several networks. According to Amankwa (2021), authorities have claimed that eavesdropping is necessary for national security, despite several critiques from academics who argue it is a violation of confidentiality. Many would-be attackers have been apprehended this way in the process of plotting their crimes.Certain principles need to be offered to the students to enhance their level of awareness of cyber security. Cybersecurity principles provide best practices for securing digital assets from attacks that might compromise sensitive knowledge and data. In this way, the four basic categories of cybersecurity principles protection, governance, response, and detection help safeguard crucial data and information.Amankwa (2021) highlights that detecting cyber dangers requires adhering to the regulatory values, which are often used in the management and identification of different security concerns. In addition to reducing exposure to cyber risks, the protective standards are meant to facilitate the implementation of a wide variety of security solutions. Principles for responding to and recovering from different forms of cybercrime are also available. As a result, adhering to this guideline reduces the likelihood of a repeat performance. The detect tenets guarantee that cyber problems are found, fixed, and understood so that unfavourable results may be avoided.The article presents the various types of risk of cyber security which is assumed to be one of the strengths of the article. On the other hand, the methodology section of the article has not used appropriate data analysis techniques which results in weakness of the article. The research article has been limited to 14 papers which is considered to be a gap in the research.Various maturity modelling strategies may aid educational institutions in maintaining a secure network. Incomplete, beginning, handling, growing, and optimizing are the five stages of maturity. This suggests that cybersecurity best practices are being implemented inadequately at first. The codes are either not implemented at all or just partly. Because of how effectively the model is evolving, the researcher knows that the principles are being followed. On the other hand, the rules were set up as normal corporate policy and practice, which is what the management principle indicates. Last but not least, the optimizing model suggests a concentrated effort toward perfection. Therefore, these concepts are typically a guarantee of cybersecurity.The issue of dependence on mobile devices is well-established when measured in terms of the frequency and quantity of usage. According to Giraldo-Jimnez et al., (2022), there is a prevalence of roughly 40% overuse of mobile devices among all users, and around 42 per cent of those users belong to the category of middle-class to low-class households. A considerable representation of this problem may be seen among the youthful population. The overuse of mobile devices has led to an increase in cyber security risk among students using smartphones. There are several programs and workshops where students can participate and gather awareness about cyber security. According to Blaevi, I., & Klein (2022), when examining the ways in which kids stay safe when using the internet, this research has shown that precautions are quite important. Because of this, the findings demonstrated that students who engaged in conversations about the perils of the internet and attended sessions on the subject demonstrated a higher level of media literacy. This was due to the fact that these students made better use of the advantages offered by the internet and social networks, while also remaining less vulnerable to the dangers posed by technological violence.These findings demonstrated the significance of early intervention and the cultivation of critical thinking skills in children while they are still in school. Even while students spend the majority of their day on the Internet and social networks, which indicates that they are not avoiding them, the students are able to use the advantages that come from utilizing these platforms, which is the objective of media literacy.The sample size and the ways of conducting research methodology are one of the strengths of the article. A survey has been conducted in the research which illustrates real-time information to the researcher. The absence of information about the risk of cyber security is one of the areas that has presented the weakness of the research article. The research article has been limited to grades 5 to grades 8 students of school which is considered to be a limitation of the research paper. Selecting students of higher grades could have allowed the researcher to gather more specific information about the risk of cybersecurity and the level of awareness among the students. Students of grades 5 to 8 face numerous restrictions in using smartphones which may have not enabled the researcher to gather precise information on the topic.In the case of higher education students, no attempt has been made to identify the risk and awareness level of the individuals towards cyber security in using smartphones. Students in higher-level classes had a greater propensity for engaging in dangerous and criminal activities online. The authors of the study stated that students' return to inferior habits was mostly caused by social influence, although they did not elaborate on the source of such social impact. On the other hand, it is a well-known fact that senior-level students, as a result of their employment and participation in extracurricular activities, are more exposed to society than lower-level students. In the present research paper, a regression technique has been used which indicates the strength of the research. Furthermore, a detailed and effective survey method has been used which is another strength of the paper. Along with correlation and regression analysis, another method has been used which is known as Model 59. The use of various methods in analyzing the data indicates the strength of the research paper. Due to the absence of different components of research methodology such as approach, philosophy and design the article has not been able to illustrate the methodology section in a well-appropriate manner which is considered to be a weakness of the paper. Inadequacy in the sampling technique has resulted in limitations for the study.According to the findings of the 2019 State of the Phish study conducted by Proofpoint Inc., more than 83 per cent of all responding firms reported having experienced phishing attempts in the previous year. Theoretically, institutional defences should be able to avoid these attacks; nevertheless, a separate analysis of over 32 million emails deemed "secure" by traditional safety standards and forwarded to company mailboxes found that around 467,000 of those emails contained phishing Websites. These security flaws provide a serious risk to the cyber security of the organization, and they highlight the possibility for cyberattacks on the human threat surface to get beyond built security outer walls. A survey conducted by Positive Technologies found that 93 per cent of cyber-attacks aim to get sensitive information, such as authorized login data, which may then be used to either retransmit secret information or generate a negative impact inside the organization. Phishing scams are very effective, which means that they are exerting a tremendous amount of financial pressure on national economies. Forbes estimates that hacking will cost American businesses a total of $500 million in 2017. According to a report, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission said that it has "obtained nearly 200,000 instances of fraud with alleged losses surpassing [AUD] $340 million".The present research paper has included males and females of different ages, educational levels, and computer literacy. This is one of the strengths of the article. On the other hand, the paper does not illustrate the risk factors of cybersecurity which is a weakness of the paper. The paper has been limited to an illustration of software and email security. There are other means through which cyber security is affected while using smartphones. This is one of the limitations of the research paper. Furthermore, the researcher has not illustrated the importance of cyber security awareness in detail which leads to the limitation of the study.The importance of security education while using smartphoneCyber education is increasing in different countries and regions. According to Venter et al., (2019), education in cyber security consists of two parts: first, people need to become aware of the need to take measures, and then instructors need to impart the skills that people need in order to take the necessary safeguards. In analyzing the paper it has been found that the research has introduced the topic in the South African context which is considered to be one of the limitations of the research. Due to focus on a specific region or a country the researcher has not been able to identify the importance of security education in using smartphones in different areas and regions. A quantitative method has been used in the research methodology section which has limited the performance of the research paper. Using a qualitative study along with a quantitative method could have enhanced the capacity of the paper. Furthermore, research approach, philosophy and design has not been taken into consideration by the researcher which indicates another limitation of the research. Absence of strategies through which cybersecurity education can be provided to individuals has been excluded from the research paper which is another limitation of the study. In comparison to other research papers stated by Mabawonku & Madukoma (2022) it can be seen that both the paper has similar criteria as both the researcher and the authors focus on specific regions of a country. This indicates the similarity of limitations in both the research. According to Mabawonku & Madukoma (2022) Compliance with information security standards protects the information resources kept in the library from being accessed by unauthorized users and maintains those resources against the danger of being lost, damaged, or altered in a manner that was not intended. However, data from the aforementioned literature shows that there is a poor level of compliance with information security by library workers working in university libraries in Nigeria. The research does not focus on cyber security awareness of using smartphones instead it focuses on information security compliance in libraries. This is one of the limitations that has been identified in the present research. On the other hand, the questionnaires that have been decided are not relevant to the topic which leads to inappropriate responses from participants which is considered to be another limitation of the research. The paper has taken a large sample size into consideration. However, the data analysis technique is not relevant to the sample size which is another reason for the limitation of the study. The researcher could have used Saunders Onion Model for identifying the elements of the research methodology. However, due to the absence of the model, the appropriate elements of the methodology have been excluded from the research. The researcher has conducted the research in a narrow format which leads to the exclusion of various elements in the research. Furthermore, online learning has also increased the demand for using smartphones. With the increased use of smartphones, students are facing issues with security and safeguarding of information. According to Wang (2022), the education system is working hard to give students excellent schooling, despite the fact that many schools are rapidly making the switch from traditional classroom instruction to online learning. In spite of this, many schools are already making extensive use of online interaction and educational technologies. The research has provided in-depth information about the topic however, the topic has been limited to a specific country which has limited the scope of the research. Furthermore, the data has been analyzed using SPSS which has led to a delay in the completion of the research. This is another limitation of the study. Importance of cyber security education for students using smartphones Effectiveness of cyber security educationThe use of the internet is not exclusive to adults; yet, in this day of technology and multimedia, students need to have information about how to keep themselves safe online. While the Internet offers enormous opportunities and advantages for everyone, compulsive usage of the Internet may be dangerous since it may lead to cyber hazards such as cyber addiction. According to Rahman et al., (2020), how school students use the Internet is rapidly evolving in response to the significant social, commercial, and technical innovation that is taking place. The good aspects of children's usage of the internet are made abundantly clear by the fact that they often interact with content such as movies, music, games, texting, and searches. Interacting with different types of content on social media may lead to malicious attacks which may further result in disrupting situations for students. Thus it is essential to have cyber security education to mitigate and safeguard the information on smartphones. The primary objective of cybersecurity education is to provide information on potential risks and challenges of cybersecurity in using smartphones among students.Rahman et al., (2020) highlight that people enjoy two realms of life, one is physical and another is virtual. However, in the present times, individuals such as students focus more on virtual life. Education on cybersecurity is essential since incidents of cybercrime may take place anywhere, at any time, and against any people or organization. Cybersecurity may also be described as the action, process, capacity, or condition in which the systems used for communication and information and the information contained within are protected against and/or defended against harm, unauthorized use or alteration, or exploitation. This protection and defence can take the shape of either an active or passive stance. No question that using the internet expands one's knowledge. Students are also susceptible to developing addictions, and when this happens, they stop engaging in useful tasks like reviewing their lessons. The development of addiction to smartphones results in serious engagement with the internet and mobile phones regardless of the negative impacts they may create for students. This is one of the reasons that individuals should be offered cybersecurity education in schools and society.Implementation of cyber security education in schoolsRahman et al., (2020) have also highlighted that schools in different regions and countries such as Malaysia have started implementing cybersecurity education. However, certain challenges are faced by schools in implementing the process. Lack of experience, funds, and resources are three of the most significant obstacles that schools must overcome to successfully adopt cybersecurity instruction. Educators suffer from a lack of information and skills about the internet. There is a possibility that educational institutions and government departments may not have sufficient resources and facilities to execute cybersecurity instruction. The rapid pace of technological advancement creates new dangers that call for innovative approaches to their mitigation. There is a possibility that educators may struggle to keep up with technological advances and maintain the level of expertise necessary to keep their pupils safe. This is a significant challenge for educators since they often lack access to pedagogical resources and are expected to be cognizant of shifting technology norms.Rahman et al., (2020) specify that according to statistical statistics that were recently published by the Cyber Crime and Multimedia PDRM Investigation Division, the number of instances of cyber-love scams, sometimes commonly referred to as the African Scam, is at a level that warrants alarm. In 2012, there were only 814 incidents of online fraud recorded in Malaysia, but in 2013, there were 1095 cases reported. This is a significant increase from the previous year. According to Rahman et al., (2020), there are several strategies that the stakeholders in academics can use to promote cybersecurity education among students. When addressing cybersecurity concepts with school students, video cartoons were selected as resources for teachers to utilize. For instance, utilizing the Upin and Ipin tales to create awareness of cybersecurity is one example of how these resources might be used. In addition, students may talk about cybersecurity in the classroom or in speech contests, and cybersecurity education weeks can be organised.There are certain strengths and weaknesses of the article which have been described in this section. The article has well presented the importance of cybersecurity education among school students which is considered to be one of the strengths of the article. The negative impacts on cyber security among students have been presented with quantitative information which is another strength of the article. The qualitative information allows readers to gather specific information about the importance of cybersecurity education among school students. Different strategies can be used by schools and academic institutions to promote cybersecurity education. The strategy has been depicted in the article which shows the strength of the article.The impact of cyber security has not been clearly stated in the article which indicates the weakness of the research article. On the other hand, cyber security issues related to smartphone users have been presented in minimal context which is the weakness of the article. Along with the weakness, certain limitations have been identified in the article. The research has highlighted several studies conducted previously. However, the studies were limited to 2011 to 2019. Hence, it indicates that the latest information and ideas about the importance of cybersecurity education among students have not been presented in the article which indicates the limitation of the article. Furthermore, the research methodology does not include surveys or interviews. The involvement of quantitative data could have helped in illustrating the topic more briefly by presenting the experience and views of the students in the context of cyber security. Hence, this can be considered as a limitation of the present article. The data has not been analyzed properly which presents another limitation of the research. The research could have utilized a relevant data analysis method.The present research does not illustrate the presence of data collection methods that have been used in the research. This is one of the limitations of the research paper. It is difficult to identify the types of data collection processes that have been used by the researcher in the research. Furthermore, there is no presence of the elements of research methodology. The research does not include any information regarding the research approach, philosophy, design, and strategy. This led to limitations in the present research. On the other hand, the research states that information has been taken from surveys however there is no percentage of survey information and questions in the research. The paper has not taken demographics into consideration which indicates the limitations of the research. The absence of demographics makes it difficult for the readers and audiences to understand cybersecurity education in the context of students. The research team was composed entirely of researchers from a single field, which may have restricted the range of viewpoints considered and introduced unintended biases into the process of designing the study, analyzing the data, and interpreting the conclusions. The lack of a control group in the experimental design makes it difficult to ascribe the observed effects simply to the intervention, since there may be other confounding factors affecting the findings. This restricts the capacity to assign the reported effects entirely to the intervention. Because the sample was made up of undergraduate students from a single institution, it is possible that the results may not adequately reflect the population as a whole or other age groups.In the study by Herkanaidu, (2020), the researcher propounded the requirement of educating students to use smartphones that are secured. It is one the strength of this study is that it acknowledges the importance of the knowledge and its spread about the theme of cyber security and the risk factors that are associated with it. The scholar also acknowledged the fact that cybersecurity and the behavioural approach and knowledge surrounding the current requirement of society. The study has substantial gaps as it fails to understand the reasons behind the neglect of such risk factors. In this study, it has been found that cyber security education and its importance were acknowledged by the educational sectors of South Africa and boards of committees were founded for incorporating cyber security knowledge and measures into the curriculum. In the research paper of Herkanaidu, (2020), the issue that has been eradicated from the city is the justification of the rationale behind the research gaps or the substantial areas of development regarding the cyber security risks. The major theme of cyber security awareness is the risk and threats associated with it. Without the proper understanding and explanation of the risks and threat issues the research paper he argued a lot of themes, which at the end of the discussion section remain unclear and unanswered. This again fails to comprehensively summarise the essential sections of the importance of initiating educational aspects in the cyber security themes. In the study of Cranfield et al., (2020), the article emphasised the understanding of the interrelation between security education, and security awareness and the implications it has over the issue of cyber security threats. However, the study has found as mentioned earlier that there is a substantial lack of development of both security awareness and education in the case of smartphone usage. Similar issues have been found in the study of Cranfield et al., (2020), as there are substantial gaps in the sections which could have addressed the issues of implementing an educational framework. Research papers by Cranfield et al., (2020), and the ones previously mentioned not only lack a systematic approach to providing recommendations but also frameworks by which the system of cyber security could be implemented. The studies here thus have certain substantial research gaps, limitations and lacunae that future research can encompass and engage with. The study acknowledges the issue of spreading knowledge about cyber security awareness for smartphone-using students but fails to provide a sound conceptual idea that might be of unprecedented relevance. In comparison, it can be found that both the studies by Herkanaidu, (2020), and Cranfield et al., (2020) focus has been extensively made over communities and the results are thus restricted. However, the study by Herkanaidu, (2020), emphasised the relevance of cyber security awareness and practices especially among educating students whereas the latter focused mainly on the interrelation of education and threats. Attitude Towards Smartphones UsageAccording to the study by Murat Koyuncu & TolgaPusatl, (2019), the issue of awareness and attitude towards the same by smartphone users is an essential factor that underlines the theme. The study here emphasises the understanding of the attitudes and conceptions of smartphone users regarding the theme of awareness and counter-measurements to understand the risk factors. However, in the study as found in the previous ones as well, the attitude and perception of the participants in this research paper are extremely low, and a majority of them are not reflecting any awareness towards the cause.The research study by Murat Koyuncu, & TolgaPusatl. (2019), however, have certain fundamental flaws it which might result in such unsatisfactory data generation. The paper has followed a closed-end survey-based approach which does not provide quality results as it has been already mentioned that survey-based research is exceptionally rigid and non-flexible. The descriptive data that are generated here are majorly statistical which eliminates the human activity of different attitudes towards the issue of awareness. As mentioned previously, a comparison can be done with previous studies that have shown that survey-based research has a limitation which does not allow participants to answer with full confidence. This in the meantime undermines the requirement of the research paper. Survey-based research is expensive and online survey-based research provides an elemental lack of true knowledge. Thus, to understand the issue of attitude and human perception regarding the theme of awareness in smartphones, a highly used device than an individualistic approach to collecting data or qualitative research methodology or a mixed-mythological approach can be undertaken. In the study of et al., (2022), the attitude towards smartphone usage has been focused on the perception of parents and new guardians. It is in vogue that, parents and guardians who are working or are unable to keep their children in childcare. The study shows that on various occasions on the demands of parents and the child care centres, sensitive and secret data of the children are transferred to the former by the latter via lines that are not secured and are extremely vulnerable towards dangerous and malicious activities. This attitude of callously using smartphones without smartness and transferring sensitive data of minors is not only putting risk towards these children at but also instigates crime rates. However, the study by Gruber et al., (2022), has recognised certain research limitations in their own study. A limited amount of primary research data has been used, as only 42 of innumerable such assistance apps were used. The study here has overemphasised analysing the applications and not the human aspect and their original attitude towards the issue as well. The human aspect of the research problem of aim was missing from this paper as it outlined the various apps and their functionalities. However, this issue would have been solved if the research paper understood a mixed approach of methodology, by which not only apps would be tested and analysed but also the attitude towards using them will also be known. In the comparison the previous study focused on a different demographic and varied community than the study Gruber et al., (2022). However, both the articles here underlined the theme that the attitude of the users towards security is essential. Both articles failed to deploy a mixed-method or qualitative approach to the study and remained focused towards the superficial analysis. Different Types of Vulnerabilities in Smartphone UsageIn the study of Meadows &Sambasivam, (2023), the focus has been made on stratified vulnerabilities and risks that are connected with the issue of smartphone usage. The study here reflects that, employees weak security practices outside the workplace which make their personal as well as professional lives vulnerable and risk-prone. These immoral and low practices and awareness of different types of vulnerabilities present in the smartphone and in the procedure of its usage by its users. The study has thus outlined various vulnerable situations by which organisations are receiving extensive backlash and financially difficult times. Thus the study here takes up the approach to reach the issue of training but in a gamified version.However, in the study by Meadows &Sambasivam, (2023), there are substantial research limitations as underlined by the researchers themselves. The study here failed to extract information regarding the issue of awareness and practices of smartphones from a substantial amount of users. This limitation will undoubtedly impact on their result and future research actions must acknowledge this mistake. Even though this study is based on quantitative data, information was not sufficient due to the lack of participants and also the fear of exposure to the practices. Workplace job roles in modern times are multiple and such a vast variety of job roles recruits innumerable employees. Scrutinising and evaluating their practices in this research paper by using quantitive data is unimaginable. These limitations in the study make it a half-hearted and limited study of the theme. The study of Al-Tajer&Ikuesan Richard Adeyemi, (2022), focuses on the lack of cyber security knowledge of young smartphone users and the ways how it makes them vulnerable towards the world. The arrival of the children towards these vulnerable moments of transferring sensitive data and information as argued by Al-Tajer, & Ikuesan Richard Adeyemi, (2022) are due to the lack of parental guidance. However, this study has an undefined methodological approach that does not address the issue in its totality. It only argues the dangerous practices of children and not of the other demographic groups that are also indulging in these malicious activities as mentioned in the previous article. The article here has again limited its study and the radius of implementing the framework majorly in the high schools of Qatar. Thus, this limited approach towards a certain space of geographical region is however not acceptable for understanding the global issue of various vulnerable themes which puts the situations under extensive risk, especially for smartphone users. It does not address the working communities as done in the previous article. Even though the methodological aspect of both articles is unsatisfactory as mixed-method and qualitative methods are not focused on the said themes. Could you please add Introduction at the begiging of the chapterResearch Gap at the end Summary at the end///////////////////////////////////////////2 The literature review is out of date and needs updated. Update it to include related work and similar research and highlight the gaps in them to distinguish your approach from the existing one & to emphasize the importance of your research. 3 The literature review is very descriptive and needs to present, discuss, and critique the different approaches and methods and findings in relation to their own research. Please discuss the existing published research and use latest references and remove the very old one. One more RQ to be added to investigate current models, frameworks, methods, and techniques used to raise awareness on the use of smartphones and internet among kids, students, and young generations to highlight the shortages in these methods or techniques. Should be added in the LR? Or later?Add a research gap section at the end of the LR to show the importance of your research study.Add an introduction section at the biggening of the LR and a summary section at the end of LR.Make sure that you covered what theories have been used before, add a summary table of the methods, theories and models outcomes to raise the security awareness. As examiners asked to add a RQ. One more RQ to be added to investigate current models, frameworks, methods, and techniques used to raise awareness on the use of smartphones and internet among kids, students, and young generations to highlight the shortages in these methods or techniques.Add what have been done for young aged pupils (as my study covers ages (12-45) both school pupils and university students, so it is worth to see what have been done and what have not been done). And used demographic factors such as age, gender, and level of education.Relate everything to the model in the Fig. below.knowledge

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

knowledge

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 2 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 1:Factors studied in previous research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bitton</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>290</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bitton et al., 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>290</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">290</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bitton, Ron</author><author>Finkelshtein, Andrey</author><author>Sidi, Lior</author><author>Puzis, Rami</author><author>Rokach, Lior</author><author>Shabtai, Asaf</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Taxonomy of mobile users&apos; security awareness</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>266-293</pages><volume>73</volume><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bitton et al., 2018) Bitton, R., Finkelshtein, A., Sidi, L., Puzis, R., Rokach, L., & Shabtai, A. (2018). Taxonomy of mobile users' security awareness. Computers & Security, 73, 266-293. knowledge

experience

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

knowledge

experience

attitude

behaviour

Smartphone security awareness

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 2 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 2: Factors studied in this researchAdd a summary Table of the methods, outcomes, limitations and recommendation of the most relevant papers like this, please keep the papers that are related and add the ones that used in the new LR.Study SourceResearch objectivesMethod/PopulationFactors investigatedOutcomesLimitation and recommendationsResearch GapDue to the proliferation of online services in todays lifestyle, including social media and Internet banking, it is crucial for users to understand the essential safety measures to staysafe online. However, users frequently lack the knowledge necessary to safeguard their online interactions, indicating a need for education in this field. Even though smartphones are well-examined in the security related work. Relevant research on smartphone user's security awareness is existing, however, according to IT governance, 4 million records have been breached in the UK in March 2022 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Irwin</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>57</RecNum><DisplayText>(Irwin, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>57</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">57</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Luke Irwin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>List of data breaches and cyber attacks in March 2022 3.99 million records breached</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>18/05/2022</number><dates><year>2022</year></dates><publisher>IT Governance </publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/blog/list-of-data-breaches-and-cyber-attacks-in-march-2022-3-99-million-records-breached</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Irwin, 2022). These figures are expected to be raised in near future; therefore, this current research thesis attempts to understand the reasons and ways to combat security breaches from four main categories: knowledge, experience, attitude, and behaviour. As previously seen in the literature review, these are important factors when studying ways of targeting security breaches.

Appendix (1) highlights the key findings from studies that added knowledge to this field as these studies represented a cross section of all the elements that have introduced in this chapter, . including their research aims, methodologies/population, factors investigated, main outcomes, and limitations/ recommendations.

Prior research has shown that the younger population is more vulnerable to online threats ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sheng</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>158</RecNum><DisplayText>(Algarni et al., 2017; Sheng et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>158</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">158</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sheng, Steve</author><author>Holbrook, Mandy</author><author>Kumaraguru, Ponnurangam</author><author>Cranor, Lorrie Faith</author><author>Downs, Julie</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Who falls for phish? A demographic analysis of phishing susceptibility and effectiveness of interventions</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems</secondary-title></titles><pages>373-382</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Algarni</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>161</RecNum><record><rec-number>161</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">161</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Algarni, Abdullah</author><author>Xu, Yue</author><author>Chan, Taizan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>An empirical study on the susceptibility to social engineering in social networking sites: the case of Facebook</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Information Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>661-687</pages><volume>26</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>0960-085X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Algarni et al., 2017; Sheng et al., 2010) and young students from Scotlandwere an ideal contextfor the current study.

Although there are several publications related to smartphone security, several gaps have been identified as follows:

The published information related to security awareness is controversial.

Information related to smartphone usage behaviour is limited.

The role of factors related to users attitudes, including age, gender, faculty, confidence, and experience need to be studied more.

The published studies have found that many factors can affect users attitudes, including age, gender, faculty, confidence, and experience.

Differences in the design of the research and methods used. This made the understanding of smartphone information security phenomena a bit difficult due to the several factors involved in this study.

Despite the fact that smartphones are well-studied in the security literature, relevant research on smartphone users security awareness is available, however, according to IT governance, 3.99 million records have been breached in the UK in March 2022 (Irwin, 2022). This thesis focuses on a deep understanding of reasons and ways to combat security breaches from four main categories: knowledge, experience, attitude, and behaviour. These studies used a variety of data collection methods, including surveys, interviews, mixed methods, and focus groups. Most of the approaches used in these investigations were quantitative. As a result, this study addressed the limitation of the lack of mixed methods by adopting both quantitative and qualitative methods and using diverse approaches to collect and analyse data. So, the current study used both online survey and semi-structured interviews as a mixed-methods approach to investigate the studys goal (Jones & Chin, 2015) and (Hossain & Ahmed, 2016).From the literature the sample sizes were ranged from 30- 30.000, however, most of the sample size were around hundreds. Some of the studies also revealed the population of these studies had a common limitation, which was the small size of the population (Alsaleh et al., 2017). Additional research can be done with a bigger sample size by incorporating students from other colleges, as well as studying other aspects of students smartphone information security behaviours. In the literature, most of the studies focused on either school or college students, some of them used a combination of users (students/ teachers and staff members); and some of them used either one of them. Therefore, the current study combined students from both school age and university (both undergraduate and postgraduate).Also, some studies were limited to age and gender and ignored the usage experience, also, they did not consider the level of education in their accounts. Therefore, this study addressed this limitation by including the level of education as an important demographic factor. In addition, the recommendations presented in these studies were helpful in meeting the current studys aims. For example, investigating the use of use of smartphones in other cultures, places, and countries. As (Nowrin & Bawden, 2018) suggested investigation students from other universities and countries, could be done to gain a better understanding (Nowrin & Bawden, 2018). Many studies across various countries have been conducted to measure school and university students attitudes towards smartphone usage. Moreover, there is a lack of studies that focus on identifying the differences in technology use between large cities and small cities and towns, or between rural and urban (Anshari et al., 2016), and (Mylonas et al., 2013). Such areas studies will help to find factors that affect students usage of smartphone. Finally, most of the studies have found that many factors can affect users attitudes, including age, gender, faculty, confidence, experience, and liking. However, since the spread and popularity of smartphones and smart devices there is a lack of recent studies that focus on measuring students attitude toward smartphone usage in various aspects (Bagga et al., 2017). Therefore, this study aimed at investigating users smartphone awareness, behaviour, attitude, and experience. This current research identified the gap in the literature and most of the previous literature highlighted the lack of information about the association between the level of education and smartphone usage, different methods of collecting data, different contexts, and the population sample.In the literature there was a controversial information related to the association between the demographic factors such as age, and gender. Therefore, this current study considered all mentioned variables and they have been used to design the research questions. Although there have been research looking at computer users security awareness, only a few have focused on smartphone security, which has a different user behaviour pattern than regular PCs (McGill & Thompson, 2017); (Bitton et al., 2018). Furthermore, the majority of the studies focus on smartphone awareness in a restricted setting, such as a university with students and/or faculty (Watson & Zheng, 2017), (Dinev & Hu, 2007), (Gkioulos et al., 2017), (Harris et al., 2016), (Jones & Chin, 2015); and (Markelj & Bernik, 2015).However, the focus of this research was to collect demographic data from a diverse group. Furthermore, the growth of smartphones continues, and users are becoming more and more familiar with this technology. As a result, there is a requirement. As a result, it is necessary to keep track of users current levels of awareness. As a result, the authors believe that this study adds to the literature by helping to understand existing levels of smartphone user awareness from various demographic perspectives in order to develop methods to improve it (Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019).Finally, findings from the literature have been synthesized in Table () which outlines the context, sample, methods used and differences to the current study as well as a summary of the main findings. There remain however, gaps in the literature, which this section notes, as these will inform the nature of the research questions and the framework of the intended study. Therefore, it has become vitally important to protect their information and systems from possible security attack.Summary

This chapter reviewed the most relevant literature focusing on possible key factors which are most likely to impact smartphone users. This chapter focused on highlighting that smartphone are a timely established aspect of modern life, and that they expose peoples behaviour in the context of IT security also making smart interventions.

Also, this study investigated the current models, frameworks, methods, and techniques used to raise awareness on the use of smartphones and internet among kids, students, and young generations. Discussed information related to smartphone usage behaviour has illustrated the need for more research to understand how human behaviours may introduce risk and how the security awareness: attitudes and experience of smartphone users may expose them to a real threat. Also, this chapter focused on many factors that have been investigated age, gender, and level of education.

The following chapter provides methodology for this study, design used to survey and interview students from the school and university contexts. Justification for the research design and sampling procedures employed, as well as the analysis procedures are outlined in the next chapters.Chapter 3: Methodology

IntroductionThis studys main objective is to investigate the security awareness particularly knowledge, experience, and behaviour of smartphone users as well as the factors might influence them. This chapter provides the methodology that has been used to conduct this study, the methods used in this research to investigate the research questions. This chapter discusses particularly, the research design, the specific steps of the research methods, also the rationale for employing different research methods is presented.

This chapter presents the details of the quantitative and qualitative studies. Pilot studies are detailed in this chapter. As well as description of the survey and interview design were given. Participant selection is presented as well, also, procedures of data collection and data analysis, ethical concerns and reliability and validity are all presented.

Research designA research design describes the plan or outline of examining a research problem. It describes the overall approach of reaching the research aims in research. Methodology examines critically the gaps in knowledge, listens to the voices of subjects, and leads into the adoption or rejection of existing knowledge ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Clough</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>107</RecNum><DisplayText>(Clough &amp; Nutbrown, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>107</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1650298907">107</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Clough, Peter</author><author>Nutbrown, Cathy</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A Student s Guide to Methodology</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1446258629</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Clough & Nutbrown, 2012). This study adopted a mixed-methods approach in investigating the smartphone usage among students at Kyle Academy, Carrick Academy, and the University of Strathclyde, Scotland, United Kingdom, this approach is adopted to fill the gap in knowledge because there were no- up-to-the researchers knowledge- studies in the past have combined students from both school and university contexts.

The nature of the research problem being addressed influences the methodology of the research used in a study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>118</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Clark, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>118</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">118</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Clark, Vicki L Plano</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing and conducting mixed methods research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>148334701X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Clark, 2017). The study used a mixed-methods research approach, which included both quantitative and qualitative research approach. The quantitative research section of this study included the use of questionnaire in a survey to investigate how school and university students use their smartphones. The qualitative research part, on the other hand, included interviews with university students to investigate their attitudes and perspectives on smartphone usage.

A quantitative survey was used in an-online survey of a sample of school pupils and paper-copy for university students while a qualitative interview was conducted face-to-face with university students to obtain an in-depth understanding of their perceptions of the usage of their smartphones.

The study concentrated on defining the characteristics of the students population in terms of their smartphone usage, their knowledge, their experience, and their behaviour. This study was undertaken to determine the demographics of the population, with respondents being asked to give an impression of their smartphone using experiences. In terms of gender, age, and level of education descriptive statistics were employed to describe characteristics of the population. In addition to the surveys, narrative interviews were done with university smartphone user students, in which they described their perspectives on the use of smartphone. The interviews were utilised to gain in-depth information and to support the descriptive evidence gathered from the student opinion survey. Using mixed-method approach improves both methods strengths while minimising their weaknesses ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Aljaber</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><DisplayText>(Aljaber, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028894">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Aljaber, Abdullah Awadh M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The reality of using smartphone applications for learning in higher education of Saudi Arabia</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Aljaber, 2021).

Research MethodologyA methodology can be defined as a strategy or a plan that explains the use and selection of certain methods ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Crotty</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>112</RecNum><DisplayText>(Crotty, 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>112</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">112</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Crotty, Michael</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process</title></titles><dates><year>2020</year></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1003115705</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Crotty, 2020), which in turn are the techniques used to collect data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bryman</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryman, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryman, Alan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social research methods</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Oxford university press</publisher><isbn>0199689458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bryman, 2016). According to Myers, (2013), methodology of the research describes the strategy of enquiry implemented in a research study. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Myers</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>215</RecNum><DisplayText>(Myers, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>215</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1652802299">215</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Myers, Michael D</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Qualitative research in business and management</title></titles><dates><year>2019</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1526418320</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Myers, 2019) and ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Aljaber</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><DisplayText>(Aljaber, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028894">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Aljaber, Abdullah Awadh M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The reality of using smartphone applications for learning in higher education of Saudi Arabia</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Aljaber, 2021), the research methods involve design of the research and data collection methods within a study. In the literature, three different types of research approaches have been found: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approach ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

Research methodology is mostly classified into qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods approach. According to Teddlie and Tashakkori (2009), a quantitative approach is defined as a technique related to collecting numerical information, then analysing this data and interpreting the results. Whereas, the qualitative approach is defined as a technique related to collecting narrative information (non-numerical data) and then analysing the collected data, and interpreting the results ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Teddlie</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>134</RecNum><DisplayText>(Teddlie &amp; Tashakkori, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>134</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">134</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Teddlie, C</author><author>Tashakkori, A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Foundations of Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).

Quantitative research methods regularly include survey, questionnaire, and experiment. However, qualitative research methods are mostly interviews, case studies, literature analysis, ethnographies, and phenomenological studies.

Research methodology may also take the format of mixed-methods research. The mixed-methods approach aims at taking advantages of both qualitative and quantitative research methods by combining the two in a single research project ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Venkatesh</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>116</RecNum><DisplayText>(Venkatesh et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>116</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">116</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Venkatesh, Viswanath</author><author>Brown, Susan A</author><author>Bala, Hillol</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Bridging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Guidelines for conducting mixed methods research in information systems</title><secondary-title>MIS quarterly</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>MIS quarterly</full-title></periodical><pages>21-54</pages><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0276-7783</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Venkatesh et al., 2013). The current study was designed to investigate the usage of smartphone among two schools and university students as well to understand their smartphone security awareness.

Mixed-Methods approach

Mixed-Methods Research (MMR) is identified as the research type where both quantitative and qualitative approaches are mixed or combined into a single study. Generally, it involves collecting, then analysing, and interpreting both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study or in more than one study that explores the same underlying phenomenon. The mixed-methods approach has been used for decades in the both social studies and behavioural studies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fidel</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>77</RecNum><DisplayText>(Fidel, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>77</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">77</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fidel, Raya</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Are we there yet?: Mixed methods research in library and information science</title><secondary-title>Library &amp; information science research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Library &amp; information science research</full-title></periodical><pages>265-272</pages><volume>30</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2008</year></dates><isbn>0740-8188</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Fidel, 2008) and can be useful for studying information activities in different contexts ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Habermas</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>34</RecNum><DisplayText>(Habermas, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>34</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">34</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Habermas, Jrgen</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>On the logic of the social sciences</title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><publisher>John Wiley &amp; Sons</publisher><isbn>0745692656</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Habermas, 2015).

And one of the strategies used with the quantitative approach generally is surveys. In qualitative research, interviews are one of the most common types of data collection procedures according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017). So, in a mixed-method research design; both quantitative and qualitative data are collected, analysed in a single study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

Mixed-Methods (MM) research has been defined as involving philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and analysis of data and the mixture of quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>118</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Clark, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>118</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">118</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Clark, Vicki L Plano</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing and conducting mixed methods research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>148334701X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Clark, 2017). Besides, by using a mixed-methods approach; the researcher can use a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods that could be conducted either concurrently or sequentially, offering a better understanding of the research problem than either approach alone, and can address the weaknesses of using either technique alone, whereas gathers the strengths of the data collation PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Kb2huc29uPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxOTwvWWVhcj48

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Creswell et al., 2003; Johnson & Christensen, 2019).

The best selected approach for a particular study should be based upon the purpose and objectives of the study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017). As the aim of conducting the current research is to investigate the security awareness, particularly knowledge, experience, and behaviour of smartphone users, adopting a mixed-methods approach is the most appropriate method.

The quantitative element of this study involved the use of a survey in which two schools students and university students filled in a survey seeking to determine their smartphone usage, their knowledge, their experience, and their behaviour. This present study attempts to find if there are any differences in smartphone users knowledge, experience, and behaviour between genders/ age groups and educational levels.

The survey produced quantitative data which was suitable to statistical analysis using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). On the other hand, this study involved qualitative research element that required conducting interviews with university students.

The two research methods used in this research contributed to the generation of rich data that provided insight into the students perceptions of using smartphones. The current study research adopted approach was led by considerations of each research methods suitability and appropriateness in answering the research objectives ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Aljaber</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><DisplayText>(Aljaber, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028894">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Aljaber, Abdullah Awadh M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The reality of using smartphone applications for learning in higher education of Saudi Arabia</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Aljaber, 2021).

Greene and others, (1989) discovered five reasons for employing the mixed-methods approach: triangulation, complementarity (to elaborate, enhance or illustrate the results), development (to develop the other technique), initiation (to learn a new perspective), and expansion (to extend the scope of the study) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Greene</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>116</RecNum><DisplayText>(Greene et al., 1989)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>116</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1650305409">116</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Greene, Jennifer C</author><author>Caracelli, Valerie J</author><author>Graham, Wendy F</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs</title><secondary-title>Educational evaluation and policy analysis</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Educational evaluation and policy analysis</full-title></periodical><pages>255-274</pages><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>1989</year></dates><isbn>0162-3737</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Greene et al., 1989). As a result, mixed-methos can be used to broaden the results by combining two or more procedures, and it is not just for validating them.

This research adopted mixed-methods approach by implementing a quantitative approach in the first method (survey questionnaire) to find the significant and non-significant results through statistical tests such as non-parametric tests to explore if there were any differences by demographics in the survey responses. The second method involved of qualitative approach (interviews) that were conducted and analysed to obtain additional explanation and combining the trends and significant and non-significant results identified in the survey results.

The rationale for research methodology

Applying the mixed-methods approach provided a great opportunity to collect various data types from various sources, assuring the larger coverage necessary to show the overall picture of the topic.To obtain statistical data showing the correlations between variables and to get over any limitations associated with utilising just one method alone, it was decided to use both quantitative and qualitative methods. Section 3.7 outlines some of the methodologies used in past studies, the review of published studies in the related work revealed that mixed-methods would best provide a full picture of smartphonesecurity awareness of getting both statistical findings from surveys and in-depth information of the topic by conducted interviews to deepen the researchers understanding of the topic more and more.

Previous reports indicated that using mixed-methods has several benefits for the research studies in terms of identifying the factors or the elements that might influence the research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>118</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Clark, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>118</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">118</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Clark, Vicki L Plano</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing and conducting mixed methods research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>148334701X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Clark, 2017). Qualitative research provides a deep understanding of the sample and quantitative research provides numeric information ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Huang</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>104</RecNum><DisplayText>(Huang, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>104</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">104</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Huang, Xiangyun</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social media use by college students and teachers: An application of UTAUT2</title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>Walden University</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Huang, 2018). In general, mixed-methods approach is selected duo to its strengths of drawing on both quantitative and qualitative methods and minimizing the weaknesses of each approaches ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>118</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Clark, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>118</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">118</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Clark, Vicki L Plano</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing and conducting mixed methods research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>148334701X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Clark, 2017). By combining the advantages of both approaches, the weaknesses of one approach are overcome.

A quantitative method is used as the first method and a qualitative method as the second method as this study initially was quantitative but then it was decided that more in-depth information is needed to understand more about the aim of the study. Combining qualitative and quantitative data strengthens one approachs advantages while minimising those of the other ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Aljaber</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>35</RecNum><DisplayText>(Aljaber, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>35</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643723280">35</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Aljaber, Abdullah Awadh M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The reality of using smartphone applications for learning in higher education of Saudi Arabia</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Aljaber, 2021).

Using an older cohort in the interviews has more chance of revealing in-depth issues that younger (and hence less mature) students might have difficulty understanding. Interviews were easier to access through older students, as school pupils were welling to use online questionnaire as their teacher was helping them. In practical it was not possible for the pupils to be available for interviews that take up to 45 minutes because the teacher should be accompanied to them.

Justification for selecting a quantitative approach

In this study, a quantitative approach is implemented as the first part of this researchrelies on numerical results.The aim of this part of thestudy is to investigate the security awareness of smartphones users by using a survey. The numerical data will indicate the factors influencing school and university students smartphone usage and will assist to answer the research questions of this study. For differentreasons, the researcher has chosen to do quantitative research in the first part. First, it enables a more thorough analysis of the issue and allows the researcher to carry out an impartial evaluation that will help in determining the link between the variable. According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Israel</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><DisplayText>(Israel, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>111</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">111</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Israel, Mark</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research ethics and integrity for social scientists: Beyond regulatory compliance</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1473909155</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Israel, 2014), a quantitative approach includes looking for information that may describe phenomena in a real context.

Given that the quantitative research approach can improve the collection of representative and objective results that are not influenced by the researcher, ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017) highlights the extent to which the quantitative approachs constructive objectives seek to determine the links between measurable variables ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Israel</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><DisplayText>(Israel, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>111</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">111</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Israel, Mark</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research ethics and integrity for social scientists: Beyond regulatory compliance</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1473909155</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Israel, 2014).

Justification for selecting qualitative research

Qualitative research has two advantages: the potential to reflect individual beliefs, ideas, perceptions, and identities, resulting in a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yauch</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>76</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yauch &amp; Steudel, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>76</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">76</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yauch, Charlene A</author><author>Steudel, Harold J</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Complementary use of qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment methods</title><secondary-title>Organizational research methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Organizational Research Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>465-481</pages><volume>6</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><isbn>1094-4281</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Yauch & Steudel, 2003), additionally the fact that open-ended questions enable participants to convey their ideas and opinion and highlight topics that are significant to them ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Choy</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>27</RecNum><DisplayText>(Choy, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>27</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">27</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Choy, Looi Theam</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The strengths and weaknesses of research methodology: Comparison and complimentary between qualitative and quantitative approaches</title><secondary-title>IOSR journal of humanities and social science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IOSR journal of humanities and social science</full-title></periodical><pages>99-104</pages><volume>19</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Choy, 2014). Qualitative research, in contrast, has the drawbacks of being time consuming and prone to overlooking essential factors like the necessity for a qualified interviewer. Furthermore, the researchers ability to perceive and evaluate concerns as well as form fair conclusions is limited, implying that it may not be possible to objectively confirm findings ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Choy</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>27</RecNum><DisplayText>(Choy, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>27</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">27</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Choy, Looi Theam</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The strengths and weaknesses of research methodology: Comparison and complimentary between qualitative and quantitative approaches</title><secondary-title>IOSR journal of humanities and social science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IOSR journal of humanities and social science</full-title></periodical><pages>99-104</pages><volume>19</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Choy, 2014).

Researchers sometimes misread or limit comments because they reflect their own personal experiences and knowledge, which has the potential to bias the research findings ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yauch</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>76</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yauch &amp; Steudel, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>76</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">76</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yauch, Charlene A</author><author>Steudel, Harold J</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Complementary use of qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment methods</title><secondary-title>Organizational research methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Organizational Research Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>465-481</pages><volume>6</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><isbn>1094-4281</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Yauch & Steudel, 2003). The researcher repeatedly coded and analysed the data until shewas satisfied that it was saturated and that she could build up a logical explanation ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Strauss</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>75</RecNum><DisplayText>(Strauss &amp; Corbin, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>75</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">75</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Strauss, Anselm</author><author>Corbin, Juliet</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Basics of qualitative research techniques</title></titles><dates><year>1998</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

As the qualitative part of this research looked at the different smartphone users attitudes toward smartphone usage, it looked at positive and negative attitude towards smartphone usage, also, investigating the behaviour of users that expose them to malware risks. Positive attitude means a secure, more cautious usage of the smartphone and less exposed to malware risk. Building the interview depended on the previous papers PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5NeWxvbmFzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Khatun et al., 2017; Mylonas et al., 2013; Priester & Petty, 1996). The analysis of the interviews used is given in Chapter 5 in detail.

The interview instrument can be used in research for many different reasons. In addition to the above-mentioned goal of gathering ideas, beliefs, knowledge, and opinions from a person, interviews can be used to recreate events, descriptions, and other details.Also, thoughts regarding currentphenomenaand future developments (Pickard, 2013). The interview instrument is a suitable method of collecting data for this study because of these purposes.

Benefits of Mixed-Methods ResearchThe general aim of mixed-methods research, is to expand and strengthen a conclusions of a study and, thus, contribute to the available literature ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoonenboom</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>331</RecNum><DisplayText>(Schoonenboom &amp; Johnson, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>331</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666182753">331</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoonenboom, Judith</author><author>Johnson, R Burke</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How to construct a mixed methods research design</title><secondary-title>KZfSS Klner Zeitschrift fr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>KZfSS Klner Zeitschrift fr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie</full-title></periodical><pages>107-131</pages><volume>69</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1861-891X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017).

To demonstrate the usefulness of doing mixed-methods research, three primary strengths of mixed-methods research are explored. They show how a mixed techniques strategy is preferable than a single method approach to produce significant contributions:

1. Mixed-methods strategy is preferable than a single method approach because mixed-methods research can concurrently address confirmatory and exploratory research issues.

2. Mixed-methods research can produce more robust conclusions than a single approach or perspective.

3. Mixed-methods research allows for a wider range of divergent and/or complementary data.

When performing mixed-methods research, the quantitative and qualitative strands may produce diverse (and sometimes contradicting) results ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Teddlie</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>156</RecNum><DisplayText>(Teddlie &amp; Tashakkori, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>156</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1652087842">156</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Teddlie, Charles</author><author>Tashakkori, Abbas</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods in the social and behavioral sciences</title><secondary-title>Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research</full-title></periodical><pages>13-50</pages><volume>1</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003); ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Teddlie</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>134</RecNum><DisplayText>(Teddlie &amp; Tashakkori, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>134</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">134</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Teddlie, C</author><author>Tashakkori, A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Foundations of Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). The aims and objectives of a study should determine the best approach for that investigation ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017). A mixed-methods technique is the most appropriate alternative because the current studys goal is to investigate smartphone users security awareness. This strategy enables for the collection of mixed data from smartphone users (quantitative and qualitative). Quantitative methods give on overall picture of what is going on and qualitative methods provide on opportunity of explaining why these patterns of behaviour have emerged.

A mixed-methods study approach can combine their benefits, mitigate their disadvantages, and allow the findings to be improved, clarified, and connected ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Saunders</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>102</RecNum><DisplayText>(Saunders et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>102</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">102</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Saunders, MNK</author><author>Lewis, Philiph</author><author>Thornhill, Adrian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods for business students (6th ended.) Harlow</title><secondary-title>England: Pearson Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>England: Pearson Education</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Saunders et al., 2012). Therefore, a mixed-methods approach can provide a far more in-depth explanation of a phenomenon and much stronger evidence than a single method ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Teddlie</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>134</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryman, 2016; Teddlie &amp; Tashakkori, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>134</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">134</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Teddlie, C</author><author>Tashakkori, A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Foundations of Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Bryman</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryman, Alan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social research methods</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Oxford university press</publisher><isbn>0199689458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bryman, 2016; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Mixed-methods research can reveal the similarities and differences between specific parts of the phenomenon being studied ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bernardi</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>101</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bernardi et al., 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>101</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">101</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bernardi, Laura</author><author>Keim, Sylvia</author><author>Von der Lippe, Holger</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social influences on fertility: A comparative mixed methods study in Eastern and Western Germany</title><secondary-title>Journal of mixed methods research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of mixed methods research</full-title></periodical><pages>23-47</pages><volume>1</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>1558-6898</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bernardi et al., 2007). Mixed-methods study has some drawbacks, including the fact that it takes more time, effort, and money to conduct, as well as the requirement for specific skills to gather and analyse data PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XaGl0ZWhlYWQ8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA3PC9ZZWFy

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Saunders et al., 2012; Whitehead & Schneider, 2007). Furthermore, flexibility and the ability to deal with a variety of situations are two of its major benefits ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Saunders</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>102</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryman, 2016; Saunders et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>102</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">102</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Saunders, MNK</author><author>Lewis, Philiph</author><author>Thornhill, Adrian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods for business students (6th ended.) Harlow</title><secondary-title>England: Pearson Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>England: Pearson Education</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Bryman</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryman, Alan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social research methods</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Oxford university press</publisher><isbn>0199689458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bryman, 2016; Saunders et al., 2012).

Mixed methods of both quantitative and qualitative data was carried out to obtain comprehensive and representative insights and interpretation across different methods. According to (Patton, 1990), it aims at obtaining diverse but complementary data on the same topic to understand the research problems well as well as bringing together the differing strengths and limitations of quantitative method such as (big size of the sample, generalization, and patterns) with those of qualitative method (small size of the sample), in-depth analysis and detailed information). Researchers use this design when they want to compare statistical results of quantitative data directly with in-depth qualitative findings or to expand or validate quantitative results with qualitative data.

Mixed-Method Design Procedures

Mixed-methods research is broadly considered and applied in academia including social sciences, health science, and technology because of its wide-ranging, much debated philosophical alignment, and advantages and disadvantages associated with it. As this methodology is the combination of two dominant research types it could offset the weaknesses of one single method and therefore, offers more reliability and validity to the findings of a study. Mixed-methods research design involves merging or incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research and data in a single study.

The mixed-method Design is a design that researchers apply both the quantitative and qualitative methods. To fully comprehend the research problem, mixed-method usually used as it includes the collection,and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data separately. And by combining the different findings in the interpretation. This study adopted the mixed-method design according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>115</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell et al., 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>115</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">115</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Plano Clark, Vicki L</author><author>Gutmann, Michelle L</author><author>Hanson, William E</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Advanced mixed methods research designs</title><secondary-title>Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research</full-title></periodical><pages>209-240</pages><volume>209</volume><number>240</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell et al., 2003). The research design is shown in Figure 3-1 which shows quantitative methods (left elements) being merges with qualitative methods (right elements).

32899352169795001386840218376500QUAN

Quantitative Study

Data collection: Surveys

QUAL

Qualitative Study

Data collection: Interviews

QUAN

Data Analysis: SPSS

QUAL

Data Analysis: Manual

MixedMethods: Combined Interpretation and integration of findings

QUAN

Quantitative Study

Data collection: Surveys

QUAL

Qualitative Study

Data collection: Interviews

QUAN

Data Analysis: SPSS

QUAL

Data Analysis: Manual

MixedMethods: Combined Interpretation and integration of findings

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 3 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 1: Mixed-method Design used in this studyMixed-methods approach enable researchers collect and analyse data from both quantitative and qualitative and then merges the two sets of findings into an overall interpretation.

Example of methodology used in previous studies

To provide a general view of the most commonly and frequently used research methods, an overview of the research methods that have been used in aspects related to smartphone security is shown in Table 3-1. It shows that different methodologies have been used to extend our understanding of smartphone usage context. It lists a representative range of the most widely used methods in previous research of smartphone usage reported in the literature which have shed light on the security issues regarding the smartphone usage. It shows the obtained results from the previous studies in different times from different smartphone users, students and non-students, different age group, both genders, and regarding smartphone users security awareness including knowledge, experience, and behaviour.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 3 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 1: Methodology used in a representative range of previous studiesMethods Study Title Author/s and date

Quantitative research methods: Survey

Academic use of smartphones by university students: a developing country perspective ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hossain</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>283</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hossain &amp; Ahmed, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>283</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">283</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hossain, Md Emran</author><author>Ahmed, SM Zabed</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Academic use of smartphones by university students: a developing country perspective</title><secondary-title>The Electronic Library</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Electronic Library</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hossain & Ahmed, 2016)

Quantitative research methods: Survey Information security behaviour of smartphone users ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nowrin</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>276</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nowrin &amp; Bawden, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>276</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">276</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nowrin, Shohana</author><author>Bawden, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Information security behaviour of smartphone users</title><secondary-title>Information and Learning Science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information and Learning Science</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>2398-5348</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nowrin & Bawden, 2018)

Qualitative research methods: interviews

Sample size: 30 structured qualitative interviews Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)

Mixed research methods:

Qualitative: interviews

Quantitative: Survey How age and gender affect smartphone usage ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Andone</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>293</RecNum><DisplayText>(Andone et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>293</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">293</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Andone, Ionut</author><author>Baszkiewicz, Konrad</author><author>Eibes, Mark</author><author>Trendafilov, Boris</author><author>Montag, Christian</author><author>Markowetz, Alexander</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How age and gender affect smartphone usage</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2016 ACM international joint conference on pervasive and ubiquitous computing: adjunct</secondary-title></titles><pages>9-12</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Andone et al., 2016)

Mixed methods: 6 focus groups and 5 individual interviews A qualitative study of user perceptions of mobile health apps ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Peng</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>267</RecNum><DisplayText>(Peng et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>267</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">267</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Peng, Wei</author><author>Kanthawala, Shaheen</author><author>Yuan, Shupei</author><author>Hussain, Syed Ali</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A qualitative study of user perceptions of mobile health apps</title><secondary-title>BMC public health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>BMC public health</full-title></periodical><pages>1-11</pages><volume>16</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>1471-2458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Peng et al., 2016)

Many studies have used quantitative research methods such as survey and others used qualitative research methods including focus groups, interviews, and ethnographic observation. Whereas other studies were found to use mixed-methods approach. Survey was found to be the most used quantitative method in many studies, and interviews was the most used qualitative methods in studies found in the related work. Also, a mixture of both quantitative and qualitative methods was found to be used widely in the form of mixed-methods. The use of mixed-methods can raise the quality of smartphone research and meet the need for a scientific approach which quantitative or qualitative data alone cannot provide.

Data collection instrumentsAccording to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McMillan</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>272</RecNum><DisplayText>(McMillan &amp; Schumacher, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>272</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1653571521">272</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McMillan, James H</author><author>Schumacher, Sally</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research in Education: Evidence-Based Inquiry, MyEducationLab Series</title><secondary-title>Pearson</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pearson</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(McMillan & Schumacher, 2010) an instrument is considered as any tool or technique which is used in research, such as a survey or an interview. As this research adopted mixed-methods approach, therefore, two data collection instruments were employed to answer the research questions and to gain more informed results and insights regarding smartphone users in both school and university contexts: survey for quantitative study and interviews for qualitative study.

First method: Quantitative (Survey)

The survey method was used to collect data for the quantitative study of this research as part of the mixed-method approach. A survey is a data collection instrument which is considered as one of the most popular and common data collection instruments human-related research. It is formulated as a pre-defined list of questions, gathered in a pre-determined order and is used generally to gather quantitative data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pickard</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>122</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pickard, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>122</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">122</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pickard, Alison Jane</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods in information</title></titles><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>Facet publishing</publisher><isbn>1856048136</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pickard, 2013).

A survey, according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Johnson</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>121</RecNum><DisplayText>(Johnson &amp; Christensen, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>121</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">121</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Johnson, R Burke</author><author>Christensen, Larry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2019</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>154433785X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Johnson & Christensen, 2019), is a data gathering instrument that participants fill out during the study process. Respondents returned the answered survey and provided some demographic information prior to that ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>99</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>99</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">99</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative</title></titles><volume>7</volume><dates><year>2002</year></dates><publisher>Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell, 2002). Surveys are effective data gathering tools that can be used to learn about peoples attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, values, opinions, and viewpoints ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Johnson</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>121</RecNum><DisplayText>(Johnson &amp; Christensen, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>121</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">121</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Johnson, R Burke</author><author>Christensen, Larry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2019</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>154433785X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Johnson & Christensen, 2019). In addition, both types of open-ended and close-ended questions should be included in the form. Close-ended questions use a checklist or agreement scale to gather data, whereas open-ended questions ask respondents for their thoughts on specific topics. The results of the literature review were used to create the survey.

The survey was designed to gather information about smartphone users security awareness including knowledge, experience, and behaviour. The survey was designed to answer the following research questions:

RQ1: To what extent demographic factors can influence security awareness in smartphone use.

RQ2: What are the most important variables that may influence users security awareness in smartphone usage?

RQ3: To what degree smartphone users behaviour expose to online risk.

Survey design

The survey employed in this study had five significant components. The questionnaire was designed to contain the following sections:

Section A: Demographic variables of respondents (gender, age, and level of education).

Section B: Devices

Section C: Questions consisting of information on users knowledge.

Section D: Questions relating to users experience.

Section E: Relevant information on the users behaviour.

The full copy of the survey is attached in Appendix (2). The first area of research that had to be taken into consideration in the survey design stage and implementation was to decide what type of sample size the survey would have, this was of particular importance to the project as too small a sample size would lead to incorrect information on the sample due to individual bias, and individual interests. These concerns about a small sample were looked at and it was decided that the survey had to be more than 100 respondents for the sample to be a relevant size ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hair Jr</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>308</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hair Jr et al., 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>308</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177411">308</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hair Jr, Joseph F</author><author>Hult, G Tomas M</author><author>Ringle, Christian M</author><author>Sarstedt, Marko</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM)</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1544396333</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hair Jr et al., 2021). In practice, it is difficult to control the exact number of respondents. This study collected information from 350 respondents and then this is however, a good number for this study.

As the risks associated with the smartphone usage and manipulation are significant. Particularly for school-age pupils and young adults, the objectives of the survey were:

To determine the security awareness of smartphone users by investigating the knowledge, experience, and behaviour of the school pupils and university students when using their smartphones.

To find out if there are any specific gender, age, or level of education differences.

Toward these objectives, we analysed this data. The instrument for this was an online survey for school pupils and a printed copy for the University students.

This survey was made using eSurv for school pupils, which is an online, free survey creator and tool and which allows for the use of as many questions as necessary. The audience of this research case was users who had the experience of owning a smartphone. The target response chosen for this survey was a sample size of 147 pupils in the Kyle Academy and Carrick Academy in Scotland in the UK in June 2015, and 199 university students who own a smartphone. For the university students, each participant was given a printed copy of the survey and then entered by the researcher to SPSS immediately.

This survey consists of some questions, combining both open-ended and close-ended questions and others are mixed of the two types. This survey included questions that would help the researcher to look at the results and draw some decisions about the types of issues that the end-users are now facing and what those users do to combat these matters. To find answers to these questions the survey had to include different types of questions.

A structured survey with 30 multiple-choice questions to be completed by the participants. The survey was made short and easy to complete, taking around 5 to 10 minutes total. Before releasing the online survey, pilot testing was done to make sure that every part of the survey instrument worked as planned.

To complete this type of research it was critical to reaching a wide audience of smartphone users from within the UK. Choosing the schools pupils allowed the survey to target respondents aged (12-16) and university students who have had experienced using smartphone devices in their daily activities. Once the survey distributor was chosen the next stage was to create and write the survey questions.

Quantitative Data Collection

By using online survey, the non-random participant error was greatly reduced. The survey was coded to prevent responders from responding until all necessary fields were filled out. The link to the online survey remained active for three months from June to August 2015. Participants in the study were to be smartphone owners and between the ages of 12 years and 16 years for school pupils and 17 years and above for students at the University level.

The iPhone, and Android smartphones mostly attracted our interest. At the time of this survey, these were thought to be the most widely used devices on the market.

Participants recruitment and completion rates

This study utilized a targeted sample. The sample frame comprised primarily of two secondary schools pupils and university-level students in Scotland, UK. 346 smartphone users were recruited in total. This decision enabled the researcher to gather enough responses to carry out the planned statistical analysis. The selection of Kyle Academy and Carrick Academy made sure that the surveys were sent right away to the student body. Furthermore, it was assumed that those who participated in these questionnaires owned smartphones and had experience with mobile technology. The researcher had personal links to these schools, and it was supported by Police Scotland. And the schools were selected as the researcher has a personal link to the teacher there and they are willing to participate in this study. The choice of these schools provided a good spread and a wide range of academic and socio-economic of backgrounds for the participants and consequently that the questionnaire results would be more generalizable to the population of children and young adults. And the demographic of Strathclyde students provides a wide range of academic and socio-economic background and could be explained to provide a balanced cohort when assessing their security behaviour in the context of smartphone usage.

The participants teacher explained to them the goal of the study in the schools. Additionally, by selecting the University of Strathclyde, it was made sure that the surveys were swiftly given to the students in several university classrooms. The university students are the right students to use in this survey as the researcher is studying at the University of Strathclyde and they were accessible and covers the age that was aimed to do this study. The information sheet provided the participants with a description of the studys objectives.

The target people for this study were students who own smartphones as in this digital era, information security is a growing concern especially for students who are one of the fastest-growing groups of smartphone users and being a targeted group for attackers. This research investigates security awareness of both school-age and university smartphone users.

As all the students in the samples have smartphones, they are most likely to have been exposed to information security risks and they might use some technologies, such as passwords, antivirus programs, or backup procedures. For this reason, convenience sampling was used to draw the subjects from among students at the two schools, and the university-level-students.

The survey responses are displayed in Table 3-2. The survey received 350 replies in total, some of which were excluded. 3% of the survey responses were inappropriate for the analysis of the research. More specifically, four responses to the survey fell into the non-eligibility group. A completed survey that contains a non-smartphone mobile device entry in response to Question 7 is considered ineligible, and the surveys are destroyed as a result. It also represents any surveys that were discovered to be inconsistent. Any discrepancies were removed from the findings.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 3 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 2: Survey ResponsesTotal Number of Responses 350

Number of Completed Surveys 350

Accepted 346

Non-Eligible Responses 4

Informed consent sheet

An informed consent sheet was sent with the survey to inform respondents of the researchs aims and other concerns, such as the anonymity of their responses. The coding and analysis technique used a respondent ID number as the identifier and the research told the participants that their names will not be used in the survey. The surveys were also maintained in a safe place where only the researcher could access them. A copy is attached in Appendix (3).

Pilot study

More than one review of the survey questions has been done with the researchers supervisor to ensure that the questions are obvious, not vague, can be easily answered and can be understandable and the survey was readable and reliable. Before releasing the online survey, a pilot test was conducted. Making sure the survey was usable and that participants had no trouble answering it was one of the main goals of the pilot test. Regarding the surveys layout and readability, suggestions for additions, deletions, or revisions were made. Minor changes have been made to a few items based on the results of the pilot research, and other survey instrument components performed as planned.

Reliability and validity

Research methodology and data collection methods, such as surveys, must meet two critical tests of adequacy: reliability and validity. Cronbachs alpha coefficient is used to ensure the reliability of construct items. The instrument is considered to be reliable if the same results can be reached by another researcher by using the same methodology from the same population ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Clarke</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>1</RecNum><DisplayText>(Clarke, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>1</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="xea20t5d90wtt3eexzlxveejzpd99ee0pfrp" timestamp="1652117524">1</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Clarke, Marlon</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The role of self-efficacy in computer security behavior: Developing the construct of computer security self-efficacy (CSSE)</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Nova Southeastern University</publisher><isbn>1124409882</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Clarke, 2011). An evaluation of an instruments reproducibility is known as reliability. Many studies mentioned that Cronbachs alpha coefficient confirms a scales internal consistency reliability if the value of alpha exceeds 0.7 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Park</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>2</RecNum><DisplayText>(Park &amp; Chen, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="xea20t5d90wtt3eexzlxveejzpd99ee0pfrp" timestamp="1652117524">2</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Park, Yangil</author><author>Chen, Jengchung V</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Acceptance and adoption of the innovative use of smartphone</title><secondary-title>Industrial Management &amp; Data Systems</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0263-5577</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Park & Chen, 2007). The reliability of the survey used in this study was analysed using Cronbachs alpha ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ritchie</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>98</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ritchie et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>98</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">98</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ritchie, Jane</author><author>Lewis, Jane</author><author>Nicholls, Carol McNaughton</author><author>Ormston, Rachel</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers</title></titles><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>sage</publisher><isbn>1446296202</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ritchie et al., 2013).

In this study, validity may be determined by conducting pilot tests and evaluating the consistency of the survey findings with the results of the interviews, and the extent to which these together meet the declared aims.

Quantitative Data Analysis

In presenting the obtained data from the first method, descriptive and inferential statistics are given in Chapter 4 to gain a better understanding smartphone security awareness and how they use their smartphones and if there are any differences between gender, age, and level of education.

The focus of the quantitative data analysis was on using statistical teststo organise data for better understanding and interpretation. The responses of the smartphone users to the survey questions were presented using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation. The demographic characteristics of the respondents were also displayed using descriptive statistics.

According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Johnson</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>121</RecNum><DisplayText>(Johnson &amp; Christensen, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>121</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">121</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Johnson, R Burke</author><author>Christensen, Larry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2019</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>154433785X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Johnson & Christensen, 2019), descriptive statistics are helpful for summarising and explaining the results of a research study as well as describing the characteristics of a sample. Inferential statistics were generated as well as descriptive data analysis to examine whether there were any significant differences between the responses and the demographic characteristics of the respondents. To estimate the statistical differences between survey response, the current study used a non-parametric test technique. Moreover, mean rank was used to describe the statistical differences direction. The results of the inferential statistics were used to establish whether there were statistical differences in the use of smartphone among the survey respondents by demographic factors such as age, gender, and levels of education.

The data analysis for this study was performed in two different phases:

In Phase 1: the gathered data from the survey was entered in Microsoft Excel to clean it. Four incomplete surveys were discarded from the responses. Any errors were checked in the collected data. To answer the research questions, quantitative data were analysed using IBM SPSS 24, which is used by numerous types of researchers for complex statistical data analysis. And the items of the survey were coded, such as: gender, 1= male and 2= female.

In Phase 2: reliability of the main factors was examined as follows: descriptive analyses were conducted. Also, Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient test was conducted to make sure the constructs internal consistency. Initial descriptive analysis was conducted using cross-tabulation to describe the respondents characteristics. In addition, inferential statistical analysis such as factor analysis by principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to reduce the number of factors to a manageable size and to find the most important factors in this study. Since there were several variables in the data, the researcher utilised factor analysis to identify the crucial variables. This was valuable when the knowledge, experience, and behaviour components were clustered into groups. (Section 4.7 Results (3): Factor Analysis) goes into detail about the use of FA.

As the data was not normally distributed, it was appropriate to conduct non-parametric tests such as Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis as well to test these factors that can be affected with an alpha value of (P=0.05). In this study the Bonferroni correction was employed to control the Type I error rate across multiple tests see section (4.6) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Armstrong</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>343</RecNum><DisplayText>(Armstrong, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>343</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667075863">343</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Armstrong, Richard A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>When to use the B onferroni correction</title><secondary-title>Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics</full-title></periodical><pages>502-508</pages><volume>34</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0275-5408</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Armstrong, 2014). These tests were done to determine the significant statistical differences between the smartphone users security awareness in terms of age, gender, and level of education.

The Mann-Whitney U test for gender, and level of education

The Mann-Whitney U test was used to check for gender and level of education differences in smartphone usage by comparing the usage of males with that of females, school pupils and university students.

Kruskal-Wallis test Reporting by age

The Kruskal-Wallis test was employed in this study to compare age groups as it is commonly used incomparing more than two groups. This method, which isa non-parametric test that assesses whether there are any differencesbetween three or more groups of values, requires (as does the Mann-Whitney U test) on ranking the data. The total difference between the group means is considered significant if the p-value is less than 0.05, as with the Mann-Whitney U test does. Pairwise comparisons were utilised to identify the differences among the three groups affected by the age variable. This technique analyses numerous populations means in pairs to see if they differ significantly from one another. The differences between the means of the two groups were calculated using post hoc testing. To decrease the likelihood of obtaining false-positive results(type I errors),the Bonferroni correction was utilized. When several pairwise tests are run on a same dataset, this technique lowers the p-values. All pairwise comparisons given in this chapter have had their p-values adjusted using the Bonferroni method.

To evaluate the results, one must first ascertain their overall significance before identifying any instances of significant differences across groups. Even having the greatest mean rank for a particular group, there may occasionally be a significant overall difference, but no significant differences will be seen in the pairwise testing. In other instances, both pairwise difference and the overall difference will be significantly different.

A Kruskal-Wallis H test provided very strong evidence of a difference (p0.05) between the mean ranks of at least one pair of groups. A further test, which is Dunns pairwise tests, were carried out for the three pairs of groups. Although Kruskal-Wallis test showed that there was a difference between the groups as overall, but the further test was conducted within the groups. The explanation of the Kruskal-Wallis test applies to comparisons between more than two groups of the age.

Factor analysis

The methodology of factor analysis can be applied to combine elements and create new structures. Additionally, the coherence of the items in each construct might be examined using this methodology. A variety of variables that appear to be significant can be used in factor analysis to find latent or underlying factors. In a general context, factor analysis refers to a collection of methods that, by examining correlations between variables, decrease the number of variables into fewer factors that more economically explain most of the original data (Nargundkar, 2005). Factor analysis is a statistical data-reduction method enabling researchers to discover the dominant patterns in a dataset that could reflect the true properties of the data by grouping similar factors together ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hinton</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hinton, 2014; Markelj &amp; Bernik, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hinton, Perry R</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Statistics explained</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1315797569</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Markelj</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>280</RecNum><record><rec-number>280</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">280</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Markelj, Bla</author><author>Bernik, Igor</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Safe use of mobile devices arises from knowing the threats</title><secondary-title>journal of information security and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>journal of information security and applications</full-title></periodical><pages>84-89</pages><volume>20</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2214-2126</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hinton, 2014; Markelj & Bernik, 2015).

In combination with survey findings, interview data were also gathered in response to some of the interesting findings from the surveys.

Second Method: Qualitative (Interview)

Several methods can be used for qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic observations. In this research, to collect qualitative data the interview has been chosen to gain more information and a deep understating of the smartphone users attitudes towards smartphone usage and the behaviours of users that expose them to online risks. Many researchers recommended using interviews to explore a new phenomenon to discover the implications related to a phenomenon by providing more complemented and detailed information and addressing the related concerns. Interviews offer valuable and comprehensive data and highlight generalization about the research ideas ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bryman</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryman, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryman, Alan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social research methods</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Oxford university press</publisher><isbn>0199689458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bryman, 2016).

There are many purposes of conducting interviews in a study. Some purposes that make the interview instrument an appropriate way to gather data in this study are as follows: in addition to gain individuals ideas, attitudes, opinions and more information, interviews can be used to reconstruct events, descriptors, and feelings about present phenomena and to predict next developments (Pickard, 2013).

Three types of interviews have been categorised based on the flexibility degree of the interview ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kumar</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>344</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kumar, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>344</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076060">344</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kumar, Ranjit</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners</title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1526457083</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kumar, 2018). These types are structured interviews, unstructured interviews, and semi-structured interview ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kumar</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>344</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kumar, 2018; Mark et al., 2009; Pickard, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>344</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076060">344</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kumar, Ranjit</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners</title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1526457083</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Mark</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>346</RecNum><record><rec-number>346</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076597">346</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mark, Saunders</author><author>Philip, Lewis</author><author>Adrian, Thornhill</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods for business students</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><publisher>Prentice Hall</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Pickard</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>122</RecNum><record><rec-number>122</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">122</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pickard, Alison Jane</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods in information</title></titles><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>Facet publishing</publisher><isbn>1856048136</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kumar, 2018; Mark et al., 2009; Pickard, 2013).

Structured interviews:

The structured interviews are a fixed design interview which has a prepared context before it administrated. And the interviewer asks the participants the same questions in the same order. It has same guidelines as a questionnaire, but in it the researcher only watches the respondents and listens to what they are answering.

It involves less skills compared with unstructured interview ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pickard</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>122</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pickard, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>122</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">122</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pickard, Alison Jane</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods in information</title></titles><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>Facet publishing</publisher><isbn>1856048136</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pickard, 2013).

Unstructured interviews:

This type of interviews is used to understand the thoughts and feelings of the participants and obtain their opinions (Pickard, 2013).

The interviewer has choice in asking questions, their order, and if he wants to add or delete some questions ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kumar</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>344</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kumar, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>344</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076060">344</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kumar, Ranjit</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners</title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1526457083</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kumar, 2018).

This type of interviews is regularly used in at the beginning of the research to investigate initial issues to be further explored (Pickard, 2013).

Semi-structured interview:

This flexibility of this type is moderate, being between the other two types: structured and unstructured interviews. The interviewer has a list of questions to ask the participants, and they can add questions to address the research questions if they need to do so ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mark</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>346</RecNum><DisplayText>(Heigham &amp; Croker, 2009; Mark et al., 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>346</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076597">346</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mark, Saunders</author><author>Philip, Lewis</author><author>Adrian, Thornhill</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods for business students</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><publisher>Prentice Hall</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Heigham</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>347</RecNum><record><rec-number>347</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076869">347</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Heigham, Juanita</author><author>Croker, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Qualitative research in applied linguistics: A practical introduction</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><isbn>023023951X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Heigham & Croker, 2009; Mark et al., 2009).

Because of this moderate flexibility, the semi-structured interview is the most common type used to collect qualitative data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Heigham</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>347</RecNum><DisplayText>(Heigham &amp; Croker, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>347</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667076869">347</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Heigham, Juanita</author><author>Croker, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Qualitative research in applied linguistics: A practical introduction</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><isbn>023023951X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Heigham & Croker, 2009).

Many studies have used semi-structured interviews to gain insights related to smartphone usage. For example, Andone et al., (2016) used an interview to examine how differences in individual demographics, such as gender, age and effect of smartphone usage. All the prior information made simi-structured interviews are suitable for gathering data for this study as it has a flexible nature.

Interviews are used here to support the quantitative findings and to add more depth to them. In the current study, qualitative data were gathered through interviews with 18 smartphone users from the University of Strathclyde, Scotland, UK. In an interview, open-ended questions are asked of a participant in a specific setting to elicit their thoughts, feelings, and views to better understand the subject being studied (Glesne, 2011). Because they provide information that may be challenging to gather using other research approaches, interviews are helpful. Interviews were conducted in the current study with the intention of gathering information that would be utilised to address the following research questions which were intended to serve as a platform for developing appropriate smartphone interview questions.

RQ2: What are the most important variables that may influence users security awareness in smartphone usage?

RQ3: To what degree smartphone users behaviour expose to online risk?

Interview design

In the qualitative study, the interview consisted of 40 questions which were separated into different sections that concentrated on a particular aspect. Interviews covered:

Demography, ownership of phones (background information)

General usage, mass media & Internet usage of mobile phones

Security and privacy

Social media (SM) and Internet usage of phones

Installing apps on phones

Friendships

Parental control

Perceptions of using mobile phones for educational activities

Interview questions are presented in Appendix 4. Qualitative data were collected through open-ended questions in this study. A delivery plan for the interview questions is presented as the following:

Interview delivery plan

Arthur and Nazroos (2003) recommended a frame for the delivery plan of the interview which is used in this study:

Section (A): Introduction

This section starts with introducing the researcher and the research topic, then, the participant should read the information sheet provided in Appendix (5), and they signed a consent form that is available in Appendix (6). The interview will be ready to start in the next phase.

Section B: Opening questions

This set of questions concerned collecting relevant information on demographic variables of participants (age, gender, and level of education). This was followed by introductory questions specifically aimed at discussing. Seven more questions on relevant information on the users Acquisition (ownership) of an Internet-enabled phone.

By the end of this phase, the discussion direction got deeper into the focus of the interview.

Section C: Core in-depth questions: Themes of research interest.

Questions in this category were around general usage, Mass media & Internet usage of mobile phones, questions consisting of information on users security and privacy as well as questions consisting of information on installing apps on smartphones. More questions on users friendships, parental control, and finally questions exploring information on perceptions of using mobile phones for educational activities.

Section D (Closing): in this phase the researcher thanks to the respondent for participating and taking part in this interview, giving them the chance to add anything if they have any more details to add.

Qualitative Participants Recruitment

PG students at the University of Strathclyde were invited to take part in this work to obtain their experience of owning a smartphone. The short timeframe for recruitment as well as the voluntary nature of the participation in interviews resulted in 18 participants being interviewed. Age ranges from 22-35 years old. The number of participants was deemed appropriate for this study as the aim was to obtain more detailed and in-depth information. These individuals were informed by email, word of mouth, and flyers in the Computer and Information Sciences, Maths, Statistics departments if they wish to participate in this study. The interviews were done face-to-face.

Interview Procedure

A sampling strategy where different groups of smartphone users at the University of Strathclyde with differing opinions and perspectives on the smartphone use for different purposes were interviewed. Participants who participated in the interviews were told that there will be a 10 voucher for the competition, they have been asked to read an explanatory statement before their interviews. Consent was obtained from the participants during the interview, by signing this form before conducting the interviews, the researcher gained permission for the interview to be taped. The interviewer assured the participant that all personal identities would remain confidential, and any data from the interview would be destroyed after finishing the research. Only the researcher knew the details of the participants to ensure the confidentiality of participants of this study.

The researcher assured participants that they could withdraw if they wish at any time from this study without forced pressure. Several strategies were applied in this study to protect participants from any stress such as telling them that the participation in this study were not linked to participants results or identified to others, also, care was taken to remove identifying information after the completion of the interview transcription. Besides, physical materials such as consent forms were stored in the lockable cabinet in the office to which only the researcher had the key for access.

The interviews were conducted and audio-taped and notes were taken in the interviews by the researcher. Interview questions were explained when participants were unsure about the questions. Each interview was carried out at a pre-booked convenient location at the Computer and Information Sciences Department (CIS) at the University of Strathclyde and it took approximately 20 to 45 minutes. The interview contained a set of open-ended questions with applicable follow-up questions that concentrated on users opinions and their experiences of using their smartphones.

Participants were given a list of interview questions at the beginning of each interview. They were provided with a few minutes reading the questions and encouraged to clarify any questions if any were not clear. Participants have had the right to refuse to answer any questions they perceived as invasive or sensitive.

Qualitative Data collection

The flexibility of the semi-structured interviews allows interviewees to share their thoughts and opinions about the topic in their own words. Qualitative interviews allowed the researcher to learn more about a participants point of view, beliefs, and awareness on any topic ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Johnson</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>121</RecNum><DisplayText>(Johnson &amp; Christensen, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>121</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">121</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Johnson, R Burke</author><author>Christensen, Larry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2019</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>154433785X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Johnson & Christensen, 2019). Semi-structured interviews were utilized to go deeper into any specific topics relating to knowledge, attitudes, experience, and behaviour as well as any other elements that may have gone unnoticed in the first methods surveys.

Informed consent sheet

Animportant procedure for ensuring that participants are aware of the project in which they are invited is to obtain their informed consent ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wiles</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>73</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wiles et al., 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>73</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">73</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wiles, Rose</author><author>Charles, Vikki</author><author>Crow, Graham</author><author>Heath, Sue</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Researching researchers: lessons for research ethics</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research</full-title></periodical><pages>283-299</pages><volume>6</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2006</year></dates><isbn>1468-7941</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wiles et al., 2006). Using information and consent forms, the respondent's informed consent was gained for this study. The information sheet verified the confidentiality of the results, offered information about the study and how the interview data will be used and explained, and advised interviewees of their ability to withdraw from the interview process or choose not to reply. If after reading the information sheet, respondents decide they would like to be interviewed, they were asked to sign a consent form. The signed consent shields the researcher from any potential later participant accusations that they were not informed, which is crucial ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wiles</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>73</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wiles et al., 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>73</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">73</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wiles, Rose</author><author>Charles, Vikki</author><author>Crow, Graham</author><author>Heath, Sue</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Researching researchers: lessons for research ethics</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research</full-title></periodical><pages>283-299</pages><volume>6</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2006</year></dates><isbn>1468-7941</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wiles et al., 2006). The interview subjects appreciated the anonymity clause and often agreed to sign the consent form.

Pilot study

Before distributing the interview, a pilot interview was presented to three participants to collect their feedback. It was suggested that special attention be paid to how long it took to complete the interview considering the number of questions. The feedback was generally favourable and beneficial. A few comments were made to improve the interview questions.

Reliability and validity

Reliability refers to the consistency and trustworthiness of research results ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kvale</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>74</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kvale, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>74</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">74</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kvale, Steinar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Doing interviews</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>Sage</publisher><isbn>1446205193</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kvale, 2012). The reliability of qualitative data collected and analysed in the second method was ensured by:

The transcripts were analysed by listening to the interview audios and reading the transcripts several times to check the reliability and consistency of the extracted major themes, as well as to guarantee that there were no misunderstandings or misinterpretations.

Verifying that the codes meanings have not altered during the coding process.

Besides the reliability checks, the validity of the qualitative data needs to be checked which means that the researcher checks the results accuracy by using some measures.

The researcher of this study used some validity approaches for that:

Use descriptions to describe the findings and help the reader to obtain an in-depth understanding of the findings and engage in a more in-depth discussion.

Using the researchers reflections, identify the major biases that the researcher controls in the study. Repeating the coding at a later date produced the same coding results.

Qualitative Data analysis

Interviews were analysed manually. The data analysis used in this phase was qualitative conventional content analysis to investigate the attitudes of using their smartphones and to investigate the users behaviour that expose them to online risks as a first aim of the qualitative study. Researchers should make sense of the data collected from users. As a result, analysing these data is a crucial step. Qualitative conventional content analysis is the most popular approach of qualitative data analysis.

"A research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns" ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hsieh</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>32</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hsieh &amp; Shannon, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>32</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">32</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hsieh, Hsiu-Fang</author><author>Shannon, Sarah E</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Three approaches to qualitative content analysis</title><secondary-title>Qualitative health research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative health research</full-title></periodical><pages>1277-1288</pages><volume>15</volume><number>9</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>1049-7323</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Finding regular patterns and connections between variables or themes by conceptually grouping qualitative textual data into clusters of similar things or categories ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Julien</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>31</RecNum><DisplayText>(Julien, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>31</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">31</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Julien, Heidi</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Content analysis</title><secondary-title>The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods</full-title></periodical><pages>120-121</pages><volume>1</volume><dates><year>2008</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Julien, 2008). These themes could be identified advance; thus, the researcher looks for evidence from participantsexpressions,or they may emerge during the transcript analysis. Furthermore, these themes or patterns are used as analysis units ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wildemuth</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>35</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wildemuth, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>35</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">35</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wildemuth, Barbara M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Abc-Clio</publisher><isbn>1440839050</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wildemuth, 2016). Each subject can be expressed in a single word, a phrase, a sentence, a paragraph, or an entire text ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wildemuth</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>35</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wildemuth, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>35</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">35</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wildemuth, Barbara M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Abc-Clio</publisher><isbn>1440839050</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wildemuth, 2016). There are three different approaches in the qualitative content analysis, these are conventional, directed, and summative content analysis ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hsieh</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>32</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hsieh &amp; Shannon, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>32</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">32</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hsieh, Hsiu-Fang</author><author>Shannon, Sarah E</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Three approaches to qualitative content analysis</title><secondary-title>Qualitative health research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative health research</full-title></periodical><pages>1277-1288</pages><volume>15</volume><number>9</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>1049-7323</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content analysis has three stages, according to Elo and Kyngs (2008): preparation, organisation, and reporting. The preparation begins with the selection of the unit of analysis, which was demography, ownership of phones (background information), general usage, mass media & Internet usage of mobile phones, security and privacy, SM, and Internet usage of phones, installing apps on phones, friendships, parental control, and perceptions of using mobile phones for educational activities.

The researcher produced categories and codes in the organising stage, then groups these codes into the appropriate category. Finally, the researcher presented the results of the analysis in the form of categories, models, a conceptual framework, or a map. All 18 audio records were transcribed. To make sure that the transcripts were accurate, the researcher had to read the transcriptswhile she was listening in the interviews audio recordings. The researcher then used relevant research data to derive the codes (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The researcher used these themes as major themes to guide the analysis and coding of the interview transcripts to answer the research questions at this point. An example of the interview coding process and analysis (see Appendix 7). As illustrated in this Chapter, the data analysis process and results were described by classifying the data into these primary themes and sub-themes.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 3 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 3: Major Coding Differences Among Three Approaches to Content Analysis adopted from ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>James</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>328</RecNum><DisplayText>(James &amp; Wooten, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>328</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666181692">328</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>James, Erika Hayes</author><author>Wooten, Lynn Perry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Leadership as (Un) usual:: how to display competence in times of crisis</title><secondary-title>Organizational dynamics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Organizational dynamics</full-title></periodical><pages>141-152</pages><volume>34</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>0090-2616</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(James & Wooten, 2005).Type of Content Analysis Study Starts With Timing of Defining Codes or Keywords Source of Codes or Keywords

Conventional content analysis Observation Codes are defined during data analysis Codes are derived from data

Directed content analysis Theory Codes are defined before and during data analysis Codes are derived from theory or relevant research findings

Summative content analysis Keywords Keywords are identified before and during data analysis Keywords are derived from interest of researchers or review of literature

The second aim was to explore the behaviours that may expose users to security malware risks. According to this analysis, data were categorized into many themes that represent how smartphone users use their smartphones and their attitudes towards smartphone usage to gain more information and a deep understating of the phenomenon. Also, based on the data analysis, each theme has an impact on the use of smartphone and are presented in the following chapter to answer the research questions in current study.

Content analysis according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wildemuth</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>35</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wildemuth, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>35</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">35</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wildemuth, Barbara M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Abc-Clio</publisher><isbn>1440839050</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wildemuth, 2016) is one of the most common methods for analysing qualitative data. In qualitative research, the data analysis process of the interviews includes reading all transcriptions to make sense out of the text, gain a deep understanding of the data, represent the data, and make an explanation and interpretation of the larger set of data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Teddlie</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>134</RecNum><DisplayText>(Teddlie &amp; Tashakkori, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>134</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">134</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Teddlie, C</author><author>Tashakkori, A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Foundations of Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications</title></titles><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). In this research, using the interview research approach as a second method allowed a detailed description of the users, and an analysis of the data to identify themes.

Different stages were conducted for analysing the interviews:

The audiotapes were transcribed manually.

Reading all transcripts to gain a general sense of the information.

Commencing a detailed analysis with a coding process, all materialswere divided into little components such as words, phrases, and sentences (see Appendix 7). And analysis details in Chapter 5.

According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>118</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Clark, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>118</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">118</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Clark, Vicki L Plano</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing and conducting mixed methods research</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>148334701X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Clark, 2017), codes were developed around the little components. This has been done by organizing the material into chunks or segments of text before interpreting the meaning of the information. The codes were also developed based on information collected from participants and were also generated based on the research questions and the existing related work (see Appendix 7). And analysis details in Chapter 5.

Codes were reviewed by an independent researcher.

This study adopted the process of manually coding the transcripts to sort information into codes that can be used in interpreting the qualitative findings.

Make the coding process to generate a description of the participants, as well as categories or themes.

Use coding to create a describe the participants, as well as obtaining the categories or themes.

Stating the meaning of the data, including the researchers interpretations of the findings, as well as the meaning derived from a similarities and differences of the results with the past related work.

This study used the data analysis process suggested by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017) as shown in Figure 3-3.

Each of the sections in section 3.8.2.1 was planned to explore a particular theme.

As the interviews were transcribed before conducting the analysis. This method enabled revisit back to the interview to identify information for the themes. Also, to ensure the reliability of data. A second device was also used for tape recording to prevent losing the information.

Row data (Transcripts)

Description

Coding Stage (manually)

Reading through all data

Preparing data for analysis

Themes

Interrelating of themes and description

Interpretation the meaning of themes and description

Validating the information accuracy

Row data (Transcripts)

Description

Coding Stage (manually)

Reading through all data

Preparing data for analysis

Themes

Interrelating of themes and description

Interpretation the meaning of themes and description

Validating the information accuracy

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 3 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 2: Data analysis in qualitative research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Creswell</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>120</RecNum><DisplayText>(Creswell &amp; Creswell, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>120</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">120</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Creswell, John W</author><author>Creswell, J David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Sage publications</publisher><isbn>1506386717</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Creswell & Creswell, 2017).The data collection was continued until reached data saturation. The number of interviews was guided by the information obtained during the interviews. In this study, fifteen students were interviewed with an extra three participants to ensure that data saturation was reached.

This interview schedule has been designed to investigate the attitudes and usage of smartphones towards mobile phone usage. Interview questions were asked at varied times, and clarification was given if needed to provide clearer information for participants. To ensure the interview questions were all asked, participants were asked to go back to the topic if their responses turn into unrelated answers. The flow of conversations during the interviews was maintained. During the interviews, the questions produced more discussions and interest for the participants. The information that has been collected from interviews was detailed and analysed. Subsequently getting the formation of themes and categories. This qualitative approach was used during the second method of this study to provide all-inclusive information. Multiple viewpoints were collected from participants by offering comparable insights into the trend of using smartphones. The following section presents the procedures that were taken to ensure the reliability and validity of qualitative data collected during the second method.

Quantitative and Qualitative Ethical ApprovalAs with any research that requires human participants, this study must have an independent review by a Research Ethics Committee before its beginning. Before the commencement of the questionnaire surveys as the first method, in 2015 an application for ethics approval was submitted to the Ethics Committees at the University of Strathclyde- Computer and Information Sciences Department. After a few days, the ethics approval was granted to continue with distributing the survey (App ID: 266), (App ID: 623).

Before the commencement of the interview as a second part of the mixed-method of this research, in 2017 an application for ethics approval was submitted to the same department and the ethical approval was approved to proceed with conducting the interview (App ID: 635).

Summary

This chapter explained the design of the study. A mixed-method approach was implemented to gain different data sources. Justifying the use of a mixed-methods research approach has been provided. The following two methods were used: (1) quantitative method (survey), (2) quantitative method (semi-structured interviews) with smartphone users at school and the university. To ensure the results of this study are valid, the mixed-method approach was used. This method was used to improve the validity and credibility of the research results ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Cohen</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>127</RecNum><DisplayText>(Cohen et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>127</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">127</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Cohen, Louis</author><author>Manion, Lawrence</author><author>Morrison, Keith</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The ethics of educational and social research</title><secondary-title>Research methods in education</secondary-title></titles><pages>99-128</pages><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0203720962</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Cohen et al., 2013). Also, an overview of the methodological approach to data collection used in this research has been presented. An explanation of the research methods utilised in this study, including the research design, are presented in detail. Details of both quantitative study and qualitative study in this research were provided in this chapter, as well as population, pilot test description, data analysis plans, and ethical approvals along with an outline of the sampling procedures. Conventional content analysis was used for analysing the qualitative data as the codes are defined during the data analysis to get the themes. And as this study does not used theory, so, it could not use the other types.

Data collection instrument in the current study which is quantitative (survey) is presented in more details. In this chapter, survey design, pilot study, ethical approval. Demographic characteristics, reliability test, and Cronbachs Alpha coefficients are presented. The findings of the quantitative study will be presented in Chapter 4, with more breakdowns by gender, age group, and level of education. Presenting the data in this way allowed a better clarity in understanding how to answer the research questions.

This Chapter also, illustrated details of the qualitative study (interviews) which was conducted as a second part of the mixed-method approach. The method of conducting this qualitative study was explained in this chapter, participant selection is presented, as well as procedures of data collection and analysis of the qualitative study. The qualitative results will be presented in Chapter 5.

Chapter 4: Quantitative ResultsIntroduction

This chapter illustrates the statistical analysis of the collected data through the research survey in details based on some categories (demographics, devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour). The reliability analysis of the survey is presented in this chapter. It also, details the sample demographic and characteristics. Descriptive information was used to draw inferences of security awareness including knowledge, experience, and behaviour of the smartphone users. The statistical results were illustrated for users awareness, experience, and behaviour by demographic factors gender, age, and level of education.

Descriptive AnalysisThis chapter will investigate the results that were produced by the survey in concurrence with the project aims, a high-level analysis to discover the trends that can be seen through the data obtained. While also taking into consideration what were the positive outcomes and what could have been improved upon. So, a breakdown of the survey results will be covered.

ReliabilityReliability refers to an evaluation of an instruments reproducibility. To ensure the reliability of construct items, Cronbachs alpha coefficient test should be used. The instrument is considered to be reliable if the same results can be reached by another researcher by using the same methodology from the same population ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Clarke</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>37</RecNum><DisplayText>(Clarke, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>37</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="d0wpswv5dzp50xe9sdavtpr3fwartr0v5r0z" timestamp="1610671166">37</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Clarke, Marlon</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The role of self-efficacy in computer security behavior: Developing the construct of computer security self-efficacy (CSSE)</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Nova Southeastern University</publisher><isbn>1124409882</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Clarke, 2011). Many studies mentioned that Cronbachs alpha coefficient confirms the internal consistency reliability of a scale if the value of alpha exceeds 0.7 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Park</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(Park &amp; Chen, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="d0wpswv5dzp50xe9sdavtpr3fwartr0v5r0z" timestamp="1610671064">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Park, Yangil</author><author>Chen, Jengchung V</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Acceptance and adoption of the innovative use of smartphone</title><secondary-title>Industrial Management &amp; Data Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Industrial Management &amp; Data Systems</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0263-5577</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Park & Chen, 2007). SPSS was used to calculate Cronbachs alpha in this study. The result of the reliability analysis revealed that the Cronbachs alpha value is 0.740, signifying good reliability, therefore, the instrument employed in this study had a high-reliability value as there was internal consistency of the scales.

Normality Test

In order to decide whether the data had been drawn from a normally distributed population, a normality test has to be conducted ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Field</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>270</RecNum><DisplayText>(Field, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>270</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1653564814">270</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Field, Andy</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Discovering statistics using SPSS (3. bask)</title><secondary-title>NY: Sage Publications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>NY: Sage Publications</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Field, 2009). The results of this Shapiro-Wilk test showed that the data were not normally distributed (see Appendix 8). Data were not normally distributed so, non-parametric tests were appropriate to be used in this study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Corder</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>117</RecNum><DisplayText>(Corder &amp; Foreman, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>117</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">117</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Corder, Gregory W</author><author>Foreman, Dale I</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Nonparametric statistics for nonstatisticians</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc.</publisher><isbn>047045461X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Corder & Foreman, 2011).

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

This study gathered the demographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, gender, and education level. The overall number of smartphone users in this survey was 346. There were 102 females (29.5%) and 244 males (70.5%). The distribution of age groups is as follows: aged 12-16 (42.5%); aged 17-21, (45.4%); and aged 22, (12.1%). In terms of level of educational level, 57.5% of the users (199 users) were university students, and approximately just less than half of the users were school pupils, (147 users, and 42.5%) as shown in Table 4-1: Participants profile.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 1: Participants profileDemographic information Frequency Valid Percent (%)

Age 12-16 147 42.5 %

17-21 157 45.4 %

22 42 12.1%

Gender Male 244 70.5 %

Female 102 29.5 %

Level of education University 199 57.5 %

School 147 42.5 %

Total population Total N= 346 100.0 %

The overall number of smartphone users in this survey was 346. There are three different age groups in this sample, the first group is (12-16) years old, the second group is (17-21) years old, and the third one is for students whom their age is (22). There are 147 pupils who aged (12-16), making about 42.5% of the whole sample. There are 157 pupils who aged (17- 21), making about 45.4% of the whole sample population (157/ 346*100). Only 42 of the survey respondents were aged or greater than 22, making only 12.1% of the whole sample (147/ 346). The lowest percentage of population 12.1% belongs to the age group were aged or greater than 22 years. In terms of gender, the survey population consists of 244 males, 70.5% of the whole sample, and 102 females, approximately 29.5% of the overall survey respondents. Regarding the academic level of the pupils, the survey population consists of 199 university students, making up 57.5%. And 147 school pupils, approximately 42.5% of the overall survey respondents. Based on these categories, the questions were grouped together (devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour). And therefore, the results presented in the same trends. The gender split for school and university students.

Level of education by gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 2: Level of education by genderCategory

Gender, N=346

Male (n) =244, 70.5% Female (n)=102, 29.5%

N Gender (%) Total (%) n Gender (%) Total (%)

Level of education University 161 66.0 46.5 38 37.3 11.0

School 83 34.0 24.0 64 62.7 18.5

There was a clear gender split between university and school. The survey was distributed to all classes equally and after the analysis, the results indicated that males were more willing return and submit a complete survey. I have not chosen the people and ask them to reply to the survey.

Results (1 and 2): Descriptive findings and non-parametric tests resultsIn addition to the descriptive analysis of the data, non-parametric tests have been used in the current study as the data was not normally distributed. This section provides the detailed results of Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests of the collected data through the research survey based on some categories (devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour) by demographics. It illustrates the reporting of Mann-Whitney test by gender, and level of education. The explanation of the Kruskal-Wallis test applies to comparisons between more than two groups of the age reported in this chapter and it showed that:

Statistical results for users devices

Phone type by gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 3: Phone type by genderCategory

Gender, N=346

Male (n) =244, 70.5% Female (n)=102, 29.5%

n Gender (%) Total (%) n Gender (%) Total (%)

Phone type Android 138 56.6 39.9 22 21.6 6.4

iPhone 89 36.5 25.7 75 73.5 21.7

Windows 13 5.30 3.80 3.0 2.9 0.9

Symbian 4 1.6 1.2 2 2 0.6

Regarding the phone type of the users, the survey analysis found that there are 160 Android users, making up 46.2% of the whole population of those, there were 39.9% males and 6.4% females. Also, iPhone users account 47.4% of the overall survey respondents, with 25.7% males and less by 4% for their counterparts. Minority of survey respondents owned Windows and Symbian phone types. These results indicate that the iPhone and Android mobile devices have the highest users in the market as they believed that they got the best sellers since they emerged. There is a statistically significant difference in the ownership of users of different types of smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 212.19, Md = 2.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 157.33, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 8498.000, Z = -5.218, p = 0.000). Given the uneven distribution of gender by education level, it is worth noting that this significant difference was found by the of education in the same direction (see below).

Phone Type by age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 4: Phone type by ageCategory Phone type by age group, N=346

(12-16), n=147, 42.5% (17-21), n=157, 45.4% (22), n=42, 12.1%

n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%)

Phone Type Android 48 32.7 13.9 86 54.824.9 26 61.9 7.5

iPhone 83 56.5 24.0 65 41.418.8 16 38.1 4.6

Windows 13 8.8 3.8 3 1.9 0.9 0 0 0

Symbian 3 2.0 0.9 3 1.9 0.9 0 0 0

Out of 147 who are aged (12-16), 56.5% are iPhone users, this counts as the highest percentage within this age group, 32.7% of them are Android users. For the age group (17-21), out of 157, the highest percentage is for Android users with 54.8%, the next highest percentage is for iPhone owners with 41.4%. Also, for the age group who are 22 or older, out of 42 users, 61.9% are Android users and 38.1% are iPhone users. So, it can be concluded that older users within the survey population preferred Android phones, whereas younger teenagers showed that they mostly prefer iPhone-based devices.

In terms of the phone type, iPhone was the most used one in this sample, making 47.4% (164/346) of the total sample population. Only less by 1.2% was for Android users, made up a percentage of 46.2%.

These are similar results to the results of UK Statista, (2022), which found that in 2015 the market was iOS 46.9%, Android 41.8%, Blackberry 6.8%, Windows 3.3% and other 1%.

Low percentages were reported for Windows and Symbian phones within ages from (12-21), and nobody have owned Windows and Symbian phones who are aged 22 or greater. This indicates that the Android and iPhones were the most used phones at the time of this survey. Within phone type, the highest percentage of Android users (54.8%) was for those who aged (17-21), and the highest percentage of iPhone users (56.5%) was for those who aged (12-16). Within age group, (12-16) years old users were more likely to own iPhones than Android with 56.5%, whereas (17-21) and (22) aged users showed that they were more inclined to have Android than other platforms. Users who aged 22 or older were most likely to own Android and less likely to have other types of phones with 54.8% and 61.9% respectively. In terms of the smartphone ownership, the highest percentage for young users was iPhones, whereas older users preferred Android-based phones. The younger generation use the iPhone OS more in compared to the older generation whose use mostly the Android.

Phone type by level of education

Table 4-5 shows that the phone type of the users by the educational level, the survey analysis found that out of 199 who are at university, there are 113 Android users, making up 56.8%. For school level users, out of 147, 57.1% are iPhone users and 32% are Android users. Whereas out of 199 who are university students, 40.2% are iPhone devices owners. The minority of survey respondents owned Windows or Symbian phone types. There is a statistically significant difference in the ownership of users of different types of smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank = 200.72, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=153.39, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U= 10624.500, Z = -4.882, p =0.000).

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 5: Phone type by level of educationCategory Level of education (N=346)

University level School level

n Educational level (%) Total (%) n Educational level (%) Total (%)

Phone type Android 113 56.8 32.7 47 32 13.6

iPhone 80 40.2 23.1 84 57.1 24.3

Windows 3 1.5 0.9 13 8.8 3.8

Symbian 3 1.5 0.9 3 2 0.9

The current research indicated that school users use iPhone OS more than the university users. Whereas the university users prefer the Android phones. This might be due that females can get their smartphone from their families, so, possibly families prefer iPhones as they have a good reputation. Table 4-6 indicates that the iPhone and Android mobile devices have the highest users among our survey participants in the market as they believed that they got the best sellers since they emerged. Furthermore, the result shows that female users have iOS preference over Android. And iOS is dominant for female participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 6: OS by gender and level of education School level University level

iOS Android Other iOS Android Other

Gender Male 34 38 11 55 100 6

Female 50 9 5 25 13 0

Total 84 47 16 80 113 6

Statistical results for users knowledge

By gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 7: Users knowledge by genderCategory Gender

Male Female

n Gender (%) Total (%) n Gender (%) Total (%)

What users do with their old phones Sell it 51 20.9 14.7 19 18.6 5.5

Keep it 138 56.6 39.9 63 61.8 18.2

Give it away 37 15.2 10.7 15 14.7 4.3

Throw it away 12 4.9 3.5 2 2 0.6

Other 6 2.5 1.7 3 2.9 0.9

Clearing browsing history Yes 185 76.1 53.8 80 79.2 23.3

No 39 16 11.3 14 13.9 4.1

Do not know 19 7.8 5.5 7 6.9 2

Taking steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages Yes 110 45.3 32 64 63.4 18.6

No 133 54.7 38.7 37 36.6 10.8

What users think about checking how they use their phones by their parents Yes 16 6.6 4.6 22 21.8 6.4

No 201 82.4 58.3 60 59.4 17.4

Not sure 27 11.1 7.8 19 18.8 5.5

Parents knowledge about what users do on their phones Everything 10 4.1 2.9 7 6.9 2

A lot 37 15.2 10.7 31 30.7 9

A little 111 45.5 32.2 41 40.6 11.9

Nothing 86 35.2 24.9 22 21.8 6.4

Would users mind if their parents check their phones without their knowledge Yes 154 63.4 44.9 64 64 18.7

No 89 36.6 25.9 36 36 10.5

Users awareness that there may be risks Yes 226 92.6 65.5 84 83.2 24.3

No 9 3.7 2.6 6 5.9 1.7

Not Sure 9 3.7 2.6 11 10.9 3.2

Users awareness of permissions that apps ask for before installing apps Yes 230 94.3 66.7 93 92.1 27

No 8 3.3 2.3 4 4 1.2

Not sure 6 2.5 1.7 4 4 1.2

Receiving any advice about online security Yes 206 84.4 59.7 90 89.1 26.1

No 28 11.5 8.1 6 5.9 1.7

Not Sure 10 4.1 2.9 5 5 1.4

Avoiding apps rather than sharing personal information Yes 179 73.7 52 76 75.2 22.1

No 64 62.9 26.3 25 26.1 24.8

Turning off the location tracking (GPS) on students phones for safety Yes 131 53.9 38.1 56 55.4 16.3

No 80 32.9 23.3 21 20.8 6.1

Not sure 32 13.2 9.3 24 23.8 7

Having concerns about personal information in connection with phone use Yes 179 73.7 52 73 72.3 21.2

No 64 26.3 18.6 28 27.7 8.1

Having concerns about privacy in connection with phone use Yes 175 71.7 50.7 68 67.3 19.7

No 69 28.3 20 33 32.7 9.6

Having concerns about revealing users locations in connection with phone use Yes 168 68.9 48.7 63 62.4 18.3

No 76 31.1 22 38 37.6 11

From Table 4-7, both genders were likely to keep their mobile phones for themselves than their selling them or giving them away, this account for the highest percentages with 61.8% of females and 56.6% of males. Low proportions were reported for users who give away and throw away their mobile phones for both sexes. The following percentages were for selling a mobile phone with 20.9% of boys and 18.6% of girls. Keeping smartphones for users indicates that they might have a level of understanding of the risk of losing their personal information.

From Table 4-7, more females were more likely to clear their browsing histories on their smartphones, this accounts for the highest percentages with 79.2% of females compared with about three quarters 76.1% of females. Whereas more males inclined to not clear their browsing histories with only 16% of males and less by 2% of females did not care of clearing their histories. Low proportions were reported for users who were did not know if they have cleared their browsing histories or not for both sexes.

From Table 4-7, females were more inclined to take steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages on their smart phones, with 63.4% of females than their peers with 45.3% of males. Nearly half of males 54.7% reported that they have not taken any such steps, whereas 36.6% of females did not report any steps to keep themselves safe.

There is a statistically significant difference in the users awareness of taking steps to keep themselves safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages across the two genders (mean rank=194.49, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank =163.36, Md=1.00) of males (n=243) and females (n=101), (U=10050.500, Z= -2.053, p= 0.002). So, clearly females were more motivated to keep themselves safe from online threats than their counterparts. The percentages of female participants taking steps to keep themselves safe from online threats was higher than males for both education levels, although university students are taking less steps overall.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 8: Taking steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 47 36 63 97

Female 46 17 18 20

Total 93 53 81 117

From Table 4-7, a high proportion 82.4% of males thought that their parents do not check how they use their smartphones, and less by 22% of females. Nearly 13% of the users said that they think/ or not sure if their parents check their smartphones usage.

There is a statistically significant difference in the users awareness of whether their parents check their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 199.59, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank =161.99, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 9636.500, Z = -4.245, p = 0.000). None of university students have indicated that their parents were checking their phones.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 9: Users awareness of whether their parents check their smartphones

School level University level

Yes No Not sure Yes No Not sure

Gender Male 16 46 21 0 155 0

Female 20 27 16 2 33 3

Total 36 73 37 2 188 9

From Table 4-7, most users have reported that their parents know a little or nothing about what they do on their smartphones. A high proportion 45.5% of males thought that their parents know a little about how they use their smartphones, and less by 5% of females. More males 35.2% of the males said that they think that parents do not know anything about how they use their smartphones, whereas only 30.7% of females reported that they thought that their parents know a lot about how they use their smartphones.

There is a statistically significant difference in the users awareness of how much they think that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 184.39, Md=3.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank =145.49, Md=3.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 9543.000, Z = -3.522, p = 0.000). What users think that their parents know about their smartphones usage is dominant for male participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 10: What users think that their parents know about their smartphones usage School level University level

Everything A lot A little Nothing Everything A lot A little Nothing

Gender Male 7 15 39 22 3 22 72 64

Female 5 24 26 8 2 7 15 14

Total 12 39 65 30 5 29 87 78

From Table 4-7, similar percentages of both genders reported that they mind if their parents check their phone without their consent, this accounts for the highest percentages with 64% of females compared with 63.4% of males. Whereas a percentage of 36% of both genders do not mind if their parents their phone without their knowledge.

From Table 4-7, it can be noticed that most users have stated that they are aware of the risks that can be associated to the installation process of the mobile apps on their smartphones. Males were likely to be more aware of their counterparts with 92.6% of males and 83.2% of females. A few numbers of respondents have reported that they are not aware of such risks and some of them were not sure if they have such knowledge.

From Table 4-7, vast majority of users are aware of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to their smartphones. A high percentage of boys have reported that they are aware of such permissions, with 94.3% of males, and less by 2% of girls have done so. Vast minority proportions of both sexes have reported that they have no idea about these permissions and others were not sure of such permissions.

From Table 4-7, most users have received advice on online security. A high percentage of boys have reported that they have received such advice, with 89.1% of females, and 84.4% of boys have done so. Just more than 10% of males have stated that they have not received any online advice, and less by 5% of females did so. A minority percentage of both sexes have reported that they were not sure whether they have got such advice or not.

From Table 4-7, three quarters of users have avoided apps rather than sharing personal information on their smartphones, with very close percentages of both sexes, with 75.2% of females and 73.7% of males. Whereas a higher percentage of males, 62.9%, have not reported that they have avoided any apps rather than sharing their personal information, and nearly one quarter of females did so.

From Table 4-7, the highest percentage is for those who turn off GPS on their phones for safety, particularly females with 55.4%, and just more than a half 53.9% for males. More males 32.9% were not likely to turn off GPS on their phones for safety. A few percentages were reported for users who were not sure if they have turned off GPS on students phones for safety, with 23.8% of females and 13.2% for males. There is a statistically significant difference in the users awareness of turning off GPS on their smartphones for safety across the two genders (mean rank=193.93, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank=163.59, Md=1.00) of males (n=243) and females (n=101), (U=10107.000, Z=-2.864, p=0.004). Turning off GPS on smartphones was dominant on male participants.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 11: Turning off GPS on their phones for safety School level University level

Yes No Not sure Yes No Not sure

Gender Male 15 44 23 87 65 9

Female 7 34 22 22 14 2

Total 22 78 55 109 79 11

From Table 4-7, three-quarters of users have concerns about their personal information in connection with their phone use, with very close percentages of both sexes, with 73.7% of males and 72.3% of females. Whereas a higher percentage of females, 27.7%, have not reported that they had any concerns about their personal information in connection with their phone use, and less by 1% of males did so.

From Table 4-7, three-quarters of users have concerns about their privacy in connection with their phone use, with higher percentage of males than females, 71.7% and 67.3% respectively. Whereas a higher percentage of females, 32.7%, have not reported that they have concerns about their privacy in connection with their phone use, and less by 4% of males did so.

From Table 4-7, higher percentages of both sexes of the users have concerns about revealing their locations in connection with their phone use, with higher percentage of males than females, 68.9% and 62.4% respectively. Whereas a higher percentage of females, 37.6%, have not reported that they have any concerns about revealing their locations in connection with their phone use, and less by 6% of males did so.

By age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 12: Users knowledge by age groupCategory

Age group

(12-16) (17-21) (22)

n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%)

Old phone

Sell it 23 15.6 6.6 35 22.3 10.1 12 28.6 3.5

Keep it 88 59.9 25.4 97 61.8 28 16 38.1 4.6

Give it away 28 19 8.1 15 9.6 4.3 9 21.4 2.6

Throw it away 7 4.8 2 5 3.2 1.4 2 4.8 0.6

Other 1 0.7 0.3 5 3.2 1.4 3 7.1 0.9

Clearing browsing history Yes 107 73.3 31.1 123 78.8 35.8 35 83.3 10.2

No 18 12.3 5.2 31 19.9 9 4 9.5 1.2

Do not know 21 14.4 6.1 2 1.3 0.6 3 7.1 0.9

Taking steps to keep safe from online threats Yes 93 63.7 27 66 42.3 19.2 15 35.7 4.4

No 53 36.3 15.4 90 57.7 26.2 27 64.3 7.8

Checking how users use their phones by their parents Yes 36 24.7 10.4 2 1.3 0.6 0 0 0

No 73 50 21.2 151 96.2 43.8 37 88.1 10.7

Not Sure 37 25.3 10.7 4 2.5 1.2 5 11.9 1.4

Users awareness of what they think about how much that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones Everything 12 8.2 3.5 4 2.5 1.2 1 2.4 0.3

A lot 39 26.7 11.3 25 15.9 7.2 4 9.5 1.2

A little 65 44.5 18.8 71 45.2 20.6 16 38.1 4.6

Nothing 30 20.5 8.7 57 36.3 16.5 21 50 6.1

Would users mind if their parents check their phones without their knowledge Yes 78 53.4 22.7 113 72.9 32.9 27 64.3 7.9

No 68 46.6 19.8 42 27.1 12.2 15 35.7 4.4

Users awareness that there may be risks when installing apps Yes 125 85.6 36.2 145 92.4 42 40 95.2 11.6

No 9 6.2 2.6 6 3.8 1.7 0 0 0

Not Sure 12 8.2 3.5 6 3.8 1.7 2 4.8 0.6

Users awareness of permissions that apps ask for before installing apps Yes 126 86.3 36.5 155 98.7 44.9 42 100 12.2

No 11 7.5 3.2 1 0.6 0.3 0 0 0

Not Sure 9 6.2 2.6 1 0.6 0.3 0 0 0

Receiving any advice about online security Yes 130 89 37.7 131 83.4 38 35 83.3 10.1

No 10 6.8 2.9 19 12.1 5.5 5 11.9 1.4

Not Sure 6 4.1 1.7 7 4.5 2 2 4.8 0.6

Avoiding an app rather than share personal information Yes 112 77.2 32.6 107 68.2 31.1 36 85.7 10.5

No 33 22.8 9.6 50 31.8 14.5 6 14.3 1.7

Turning off the location tracking (GPS) on smartphones for safety Yes 79 54.5 23 82 52.2 23.8 26 61.9 7.6

No 21 14.5 6.1 66 42 19.2 14 33.3 4.1

Not Sure 45 31 13.1 9 5.7 2.6 2 4.8 0.6

Having concerns about personal information Yes 101 69.2 29.4 116 73.9 33.7 35 85.4 10.2

No 45 30.8 13.1 41 26.1 11.9 6 14.6 1.7

Having concerns about privacy Yes 100 68.5 29 110 70.1 31.9 33 78.6 9.6

No 46 31.5 13.3 47 29.9 13.6 9 21.4 2.6

Having concerns about revealing users locations Yes 105 71.9 30.4 97 61.8 28.1 29 69 8.4

No 41 28.1 11.9 60 38.2 17.4 13 31 3.8

From Table 4-12, out of 147 who are aged (12-16), 59.9% keep their mobile phones, 19% and 15.6% were reported for giving it away and selling it respectively. A high percentage was reported for the age group (17-21) with 61.8% out of 157, who keep their phones for themselves, and 22.3% for those who sell their phones. 38.1% of users who are aged 22 or greater, keep their phones for themselves, 28.6% and 21.4% were reported for those who sell their phones and give them away. Low percentages were stated for throwing a phone away and for other actions. Overall, it can be stated that users in all age groups are more likely to keep their mobile phones for themselves.

From Table 4-12, most users are more likely to clear their browsing histories on their smartphones, this accounts for the highest percentages with 73.3% of users who are aged (12-16), 78.8% of users who are aged (17-21), and 83.3% of the users who are aged 22 or older. Whereas less percentages were reported as users inclined to not clear their browsing histories. Low proportions were reported for users who said do not know if they have cleared their browsing histories or not for all age groups.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group (12-16 and 17-21), 2(2)= 14.339, p0.001, with a mean rank of 187.33 for age group (12-16), 156.27 for age group (17-21) and 181.25 for the third age group (22). And no difference has been found between those who aged 12-16 and 22 with p=1.000 and between those who are17-21 and 22 with p=0.147.

From Table 4-12, out of 146 who aged (12-16), 63.7% are inclined to take steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages or calls. Whereas more than half of the users who are aged (17-21), 57.7% have reported that they have not taken any steps for safety purposes. Also, more users who are aged 22 or older, 64.3% had stated that they have not taken any steps as well. More users who aged (12-16) are inclined to take steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages on their smart phones, more than users who are aged 17 or older. So, clearly young teenagers were more motivated to keep themselves safe from online threats than users in older ages.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22 ), 2(2)=17.983, p0.001, with a mean rank of 195.06 for age group (12-16), 158.27 for age group (17-21) and 146.93 for the third age group (22). And that there was no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with a mean rank of 195.06 for age group (12-16), 158.27 for age group (17-21) and 146.93 for the third age group (22), with p=1.000.

From Table 4-12, out of 146 who aged (12-16), 50% reported that their parents have not ever check how they use their phones, and only one-quarter of them stated that their parents did so and the same percentage for those who were not sure. Whereas out of 157 of the users who are aged (17-21), a high percentage 96.2% have reported that their parents have not ever check how they use their phones, while only 2.5% of this age group were not sure, and very few have reported that their parents did so. Also, just over three quarters 88.1% of the users who are aged 22 or older have stated that they their parents have not ever check how they use their phones, few of them were not sure and nobody has reported that their parents have ever check how they use their phones. Most users of smartphones in the age group of 17 years or older report that their parents are not inclined to check how they use their phones. Whereas young teenagers are monitored by their parents as they are vulnerable to some of smartphone usage risks.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2)=86.572, p0.001, with a mean rank of 216.39 for age group (12-16), 137.78 for age group (17-21) and 153.80 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=0.654.

From Table 4-12, out of 146 who aged (12-16), 44.5% reported that they think that their parents know a little about what they do their phones, one quarter of them stated that their parents know a lot, while 20.5% reported that their parents have no idea about what they do their phones. Whereas less than 10% think that them know everything about what they do their phones. And out of 157 of the users who are aged (17-21), 45.2% think that them know a little about what they do their phones, while 36.3% of this age group said that their parents do not know anything about what they do their phones, and very few have reported that their parents know everything. Also, a half of the users who are aged 22 or older have reported that their parents have no idea about what they do their phones. Whereas less than 10% think that their parents know a lot about what they do their phones.

Most smartphone users in the age group of 21 years or less report that parents know a little about what they do their phones. Whereas the highest percentage of users aged 21 or older, reported that their parents have no idea about what they do with their phones. One-quarter of users aged 6 years or less reported that their parents know a lot about what they do with their phones, so, those are monitored by their parents as they are vulnerable to some smartphone usage risks.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22 with a mean rank of 146.29 for age group (12-16), 187.30 for age group (17-21) and 212.39 for the third age group (22). And that there was no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=0.365.

From Table 4-12, out of 146 who aged (12-16), 53.4% reported that they do mind if their parents check their phones without their knowledge, whereas less by 7% of those who do not mind. Nearly three quarter out of 155 who are aged (12-17) stated that they do mind if their parents check their phones without their knowledge, whereas just above one quarter of them reported that they do not mind of their parents do so. Out of 42 users who are aged 22 or older, there is 64.3% reported that they do mind if their parents check their phones without their consent. Most smartphone users in all age groups reported that they do mind if their parents check their phones without their consent, with the highest percentage 72.9% for older teenagers.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21, 2(2)=12.291, p0.001, with a mean rank of 154.62 for age group (12-16), 188.03 for age group (17-21) and 173.25 for the third age group (22). And that there was no difference has been found between those who aged 12-16 and 22, with p=0.594 and between those who are17-21 and 22, with p=0.912.

From Table 4-12, it can be noticed that out of 146 who aged (12-16), 85.6% reported that they are aware that may be risks when installing mobile apps to their smartphone devices. 95.2% of users who are aged 22 or older are aware that may be risks when installing mobile apps to their smartphone devices and less by 3% for those who are aged (17-21). Whereas very few percentages for all age groups were reported for those who are not aware or were not sure of such risks.

It can be concluded that most users have stated that they are aware of the risks that can be associated with the installation process of the mobile apps on their smartphones. Users who are aged 17 or older were likely to be more aware than younger users. A few numbers of respondents have reported that they are not aware of such risks and some of them were not sure if they have such knowledge.

From Table 4-12, out of 146 who aged (12-16), 86.3% reported that they are aware of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to their smartphones, whereas less than 10% of them were not aware or were not sure of such permissions. A high percentage 98.7% out of 157 who are aged (12-17) stated that they are aware of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to their smartphones, whereas 100% of the users who are 22 or older showed high awareness of the permissions. Most smartphone users in all age groups reported that they are aware of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some mobile apps to their smartphones. Users aged 17 or older were more likely to be aware of such permissions than the younger teenagers.

From Table 4-12, it can be noticed that out of 146 who aged (12-16), 89% reported that they have received advice about online security. 83% of users who are aged 17 or older reported that they have received advice about online security, whereas very few percentages for all age groups were reported for those who have not received any advice about online security, or they were not sure. It can be concluded that most users have stated that they have received advice about online security. Users who are aged (12-16) were likely to receive advice about online security than the older teenagers. A few numbers of respondents have reported that they have not received any such advice.

From Table 4-12, out of 145 who aged (12-16), just above three quarters 77.2% are inclined to avoid an app rather than share personal information, and only less than one quarter did not do so. Whereas 68.2% of the users who are aged (17-21), have reported that they avoided installing an app rather than sharing their personal information, while less by 36% of this age group did not do so. A higher percentage for users who are aged 22 or older, 85.7% had stated that have avoided downloading some mobile apps for the same reason.

More users who are aged 22 or older are inclined to avoid installing an app rather than sharing their personal information, more than users who are aged less than 22.

So, clearly users aged 22 or older were more aware in dealing with mobile apps than the users in the other age groups.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of no differences can be found between any of the age groups, 2(2)= 6.576, p0.001, with a mean rank of 177.86 for age group (12-16), 162.22 for age group (17-21) and 192.43 for the third age group (22).

From Table 4-12, out 145 who aged (12-16), just above half of the users are inclined to turn off GPS on their smartphones for safety, and only less than 20% did not do so or were not sure. Whereas less by 2% of the users who are aged (17-21), have reported that they turn off GPS on their smartphones for safety. A higher percentage for users who are aged 22 or older, 61.9% had stated that have turned off their GPS on their smartphones for the same reason. More users who are aged 22 or older are inclined to turn off the GPS on their smartphones for safety than users who are aged less than 22. So, clearly, users aged 22 or older deal more carefully with GPS on their smartphones than younger users.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2)=49.002, p0.001, with a mean rank of 211.85 for age group (12-16), 141.43 for age group (17-21) and 152.79 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=1.000.

From Table 4-12, it can be illustrated that out of 146 who are aged (12-16), 69.2% of them have reported that they are concerned about their personal information in connection with phone use, about three-quarters of users who are aged (17-21) have stated that they had concerns about their personal information in connection to phone use. And a higher percentage was reported for those who are 22 or older who had concerns about their personal information with 85.4%.

Regarding having concerns about privacy in connection with phone use, out of 146 who are aged (12-16), 68.5% of them have reported that they have concerns about their privacy in connection with phone use, about just less three-quarters of users who are aged (17-21) have reported that they are concerned about their privacy in connection to phone use. And a higher percentage was reported for those who are 22 or older who had the same concerns with 78.6%.

In addition, out of 146 who are aged (12-16), 71.9% of them have reported that they have concerns about revealing their locations in connection with phone use, about 61.8% of users who are aged (17-21) have stated that they had concerns about revealing their locations in connection to phone use. And a higher percentage was reported for those who are 22 or older who had the same concerns with 69%. Overall, users within all age groups have different concerns with connection to phone usage.

By level of education

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 13:Users knowledge by level of educationCategory

Level of education

University level School level

n Educational level (%) Total (%) n Educational level (%) Total (%)

Old phone Sell it 47 23.6 13.6 23 15.6 6.6

Keep it 113 56.8 32.7 88 59.9 25.4

Give it away 24 12.1 6.9 28 19 8.1

Throw it away 7 3.5 2 7 4.8 2

Other 8 4 2.3 1 0.7 0.3

Clearing browsing history Yes 158 79.8 45.9 107 73.3 31.1

No 35 17.1 10.2 18 12.3 5.2

Do not know 5 2.5 1.5 21 14.4 6.1

Taking steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages Yes 81 40.9 23.5 93 63.7 27

No 117 59.1 34 53 36.3 15.4

Checking how users use their phones by their parents Yes 2 1 0.6 36 24.7 10.4

No 188 94.5 54.5 73 50 21.2

Not sure 9 4.5 2.6 37 25.3 10.7

Parents knowledge about what students do on their phones Everything 5 2.5 1.4 12 8.2 3.5

A lot 29 14.6 8.4 39 26.7 11.3

A little 87 43.7 25.2 65 44.5 18.8

Nothing 78 39.2 22.6 30 20.5 8.7

Would users mind if their parents check their phones without their knowledge Yes 140 71.1 40.8 78 53.4 22.7

No 57 28.9 16.6 68 46.6 19.8

Users awareness that there may be risks when installing mobile apps to their smartphone devices Yes 186 93.5 53.9 124 84.9 35.9

No 5 2.5 1.4 10 6.8 2.9

Not Sure 8 4 2.3 12 8.2 3.5

Users awareness of permissions that apps ask for before installing apps Yes 197 99 57.1 126 86.3 36.5

No 1 0.5 0.3 11 7.5 3.2

Not Sure 1 0.5 0.3 9 6.2 2.6

Receiving any advice about online security Yes 166 83.4 48.1 130 89 37.7

No 24 12.1 7 10 6.8 2.9

Not Sure 9 4.5 2.6 6 4.1 1.7

Avoiding apps rather than sharing personal information Yes 143 71.9 41.6 112 77.2 32.6

No 56 28.1 16.3 33 22.8 9.6

Turning off GPS for safety Yes 109 54.8 31.7 78 53.8 22.7

No 79 39.7 23 22 15.2 6.4

Having concerns about personal information Yes 151 76.3 43.9 101 69.2 29.4

No 47 23.7 13.7 45 30.8 13.1

Having concerns about privacy Yes 143 71.9 41.4 100 68.5 29

No 56 28.1 16.2 46 31.5 13.3

Having concerns about revealing users locations Yes 125 62.8 36.2 106 72.6 30.7

No 74 37.2 21.4 40 27.4 11.6

From Table 413, out of 199 who are at university, 56.8% have reported that they keep their old phones, whereas 23.6% of them sell their phones, and less than 15% for those who give or throw away their old phones. Out of 147 who are school pupils, above half of them 59.9% stated that they keep their old phones. Only 15.6% sell their ex-phones and few of them give or throw away their old phones. So, clearly, regarding what users do with their old phones, the results show that more users in both educational levels in this survey were more likely to keep their old phones. Low proportions were reported for students who give or throw away their old phones for both educational levels.

From Table 413, out of 198 who are at university, 79.8% were more likely to clear their browsing histories on their smartphones, whereas only 17.1% of them have reported that they have not done so, and few of them stated that they do not know if they have done so. Out of 146 who are school pupils, approximately, three quarters of them 73.3% stated that they have cleared their browsing histories and few of them did not care of clearing their browsing histories. So, clearly, regarding clearing browsing histories, the results show that more users in both educational levels in this survey were more likely to clear their browsing histories on their mobile phones. Low proportions were reported for students who have not done or did not know if they have cleared their browsing histories for both educational levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 14: Clearing browsing histories School level University level

Yes No Do not know Yes No Do not know

Gender Male 59 10 14 126 29 5

Female 48 8 7 32 6 0

Total 107 18 21 158 35 5

There is a statistically significant in the users awareness of clearing browsing history on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank = 187.33, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank = 161.57, Md=1.00) of university students (n=198) and school students (n=146), (U=12289.500, Z = -3.235, p =0.001). Clearing browsing history was dominant for school participants.

From Table 413, out of 198 who are at the university, 40.9% of them were more inclined to take steps to keep themselves safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages on their smartphones, whereas 59.1% of them did not report any steps to keep themselves safe. Out of 146 who are school pupils, 63.7% stated that they have taken steps to keep themselves safe from online threats, such as bullying, unwanted messages on their smartphones, whereas 36.3% of them have not taken any such steps. So, clearly school-aged students might be more motivated to keep themselves safe from online threats than university students.

There are statistically significant differences in the users awareness of taking steps to keep themselves safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages across the two academic level students (mean rank=195.06, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=155.86, Md=1.00) of university students (n=198) and school students (n=146), (U=11160.000, Z=-4.172, p =0.000).

From Table 413, out of 199 who are at the university, 94.5% of them reported that their parents do not check how they use their smartphones, whereas few percentages of the participants surveyed said that they think/ or not sure if their parents check their smartphones usage. Out of 146 who are school pupils, 50% stated that their parents do not check how they use their smartphones, whereas one quarter of them reported that their parents do so, and another one quarter were not sure if their parents have any idea about how they use their smartphones. So, clearly more users in this survey showed that their parents do not check how they use their smartphones. And few of the participants said that they think/ or not sure if their parents check their smartphones usage.

There is a statistically significant in the users awareness of whether their parents check their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=216.39, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=141.16, Md=0.50) of university students (n=198) and school students (n=146), (U=8191.500, Z=-9.223, p=0.000).

Table 413 shows that out of 199 who are at the university, 43.7% of them reported that their parents know a little about what they do on their smartphones, whereas few percentages of the participants surveyed said that their parents do not know anything about what they do on their smartphones. Few percentages were reported for those who said that their parents know a lot or everything. Out of 146 who are school pupils, 44.5% stated that their parents do not check what they do on their smartphones, whereas nearly one quarter of them reported that their parents know a lot, and 20.5% reported that their parents have no idea about what they do on their smartphones. So, clearly most of the smartphone users in this survey showed that their parents know a little or nothing about what they do on their smartphones. And few of the participants said that their parents know a lot or everything. There is a statistically significant in the users awareness of how much they think that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=192.59, Md=3.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=146.29, Md=3.00) of university students (n=198) and school students (n=146), (U=10628.000, Z=-4.551, p =0.000).

From Table 413, out of 197 who are at the university, 71.1% of them reported that they do mind if their parents check their phone without their knowledge, whereas 28.9% of them said that they do not mind if their parents do so without their consent. Out of 146 who are school pupils, 53.4% stated that they do mind if their parents check their phone without their knowledge, whereas 46.6% do not mind. So, clearly more users in this survey showed that they do mind if their parents check their phones without their knowledge. And few of the participants said that they do not mind if their parents check their phones without their consent.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 15: Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 43 40 111 49

Female 35 28 29 8

Total 78 35 140 57

There is a statistically significant in the users awareness of how much they think that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=184.88, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank =154.62, Md=1.00) of university students (n=197) and school students (n=146), (U=11844.000, Z=-3.352, p=0.000). Users awareness of how much they think that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones is dominant for university students level.

From Table 413, out of 199 who are at the university, the majority 93.5% of them reported that they are aware of the risks that can be associated to the installation process of the mobile apps on their smartphones, whereas the minority of them said that they are not aware or not sure of such risks. Out of 146 who are school-aged pupils, 84.9% stated that they are aware of such risks, whereas less than 7% of them stated that they are not aware or not sure of these potential risks. It can be concluded that as smartphones mobile apps on a rise, online risks are increasing as well, and as from the findings it was found that the vast majority of the participants surveyed have reported that they are aware of the risks that can be associated to the installation process of the mobile apps on their smartphones, low awareness of such risks can put users to be subject to security risks and online threats in the app installation process. So, clearly more users in this survey revealed that they have high levels of risks awareness during the installation process of the mobile apps on their smartphones in both educational levels, university, and school.

From Table 413, out of 199 who are at the university, the vast majority 99% (nine in ten) of them reported that they are aware of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to their smartphones, whereas the minority of them said that they are not aware or not sure of such permissions. Out of 146 who are school-aged pupils, 86.3% stated that they are aware of such permissions, whereas less than 8% of them stated that they are not aware or not sure of these permissions.

It can be concluded that as smartphones mobile apps on a rise, more permissions the mobile apps want to ask for to get access to the smartphones, and as from the findings it was found that the majority of the participants surveyed have reported that they are of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to their smartphones, and that they have shown a high level of awareness, low awareness of permissions help app developers to gain access to more information and details of the smartphones. So, clearly more users in this survey showed that they have high levels of awareness of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to the smartphones. in both educational levels.

From Table 413, out of 199 who are at the university, the vast majority 83.4% of them reported that they have received advice on online security, whereas the minority of them said that they have not received any such advice. Out of 146 who are school-aged pupils, 89% stated that they have received online security advice, while few percentages were reported that they have not received any such advice or were not sure. So, clearly more users in this survey showed that they have received advice on online security in both educational levels, university and school. Receiving advice on online security for safety can be very affective to keep users safe and aware of online threats and risks.

From Table 413 out of 199 who are at university, 71.9% reported that they have avoided apps rather than sharing personal information on their smartphones, whereas 28.1% have reported that they have not avoided installing any apps for this reason. Out of 146, for the school level pupils, 77.2% have stated that they have avoided apps rather than sharing personal information on their smartphones, whereas 22.8% of them stated that they have not done so.

So, clearly, high percentages of our survey participants have reported that they have avoided installing some apps rather than sharing their personal information on their smartphones, while less than 30% have not been concerned about such apps. This can indicate that those both university students and school pupils who have not avoided apps rather than sharing their personal information on their smartphones might be vulnerable to some kind data loss.

From Table 413 out of 199 who are at university, 54.8% reported that they turn off GPS on their phones for safety, whereas 39.7% have reported that they have not done so, and very few percentages were not sure. Out of 145, for the school-aged pupils, 53.8 % have stated that they turn off GPS on their phones for safety, whereas only 15.2% of them stated that they have not done so. So, clearly, users from both educational levels of our survey participants are equally likely to say that they turn off GPS on their phones for safety, while less than 40% have not been concerned about GPS. This can indicate that those both university students and school pupils who have not turn off GPS on their phones for safety might be vulnerable to be tracked all the time by strangers and that their safety will be at risk.

There is a statistically significant difference in the users awareness of turning off GPS on their smartphones for safety across the two academic level students (mean rank=210.86, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=144.55, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=145), (U=8865.500, Z =-6.786, p=0.000).

From Table 413 out of 198 who are at university, just above three quarters 76.3% reported that they have concerns about their personal information in connection with their phone use, whereas just less than one quarter 23.7% have reported that they have not been concerned about it. Out of 146, for the school-aged pupils, 69.2% have stated that they were concerned about their personal information in connection with their phone use, whereas only 30% of them stated that they have not got any such concerns. So, clearly, high percentages from both educational levels of our survey participants have reported that they have concerns about their personal information in connection with their phone use, while less than 30% have not been concerned their personal information. This can indicate that those both university students and school pupils who are not concerned about their personal information in connection with their phone use might be vulnerable to some information loss.

From Table 413 out of 199 who are at university, nearly three quarters 71.9 % reported that they have concerns about their privacy in connection with their phone use, whereas just above one quarter 28.1% have reported that they have not been concerned about it. Out of 146, for the school-aged pupils, 68.5% have stated that they were concerned about their privacy in connection with their phone use, whereas only 31.5% of them stated that they have not got any such concerns. So, clearly, high percentages from both educational levels of our survey participants have reported that they have concerns about their privacy in connection with their phone use, while less than 31% have not been concerned about their privacy. This can indicate that those both university students and school pupils who are not concerned about their privacy in connection with their phone use might be vulnerable to privacy exposure.

From Table 413 out of 199 who are at university, 62.8 % reported that they have concerns about revealing their locations in connection with their phone use, whereas 37.2% have reported that they have not been concerned about it. Out of 146, for school-aged pupils, 72.6% have stated that they were concerned about revealing their locations in connection with their phone use, whereas only above one quarter 27.4% of them stated that they have not got any such concerns. So, clearly, high percentages from both educational levels of our survey participants have reported that they have concerns about revealing their locations in connection with their phone use, while few percentages of them have not been concerned about revealing their locations. This can indicate that both university students and school pupils who are not concerned about revealing their locations in connection with their phone use might be vulnerable to be tracked all the time by someone their locations can be revealed.

Statistical results for users experience

By gender

From Table 416, more users have reported that they have not lost or have their phones stolen, with a high percentage 71.3% of males were likely to not lost their phones or have them stolen. And 67.6% of females have so as well. And females were more likely to lose their phones or have them stolen with 32.4% of females and 28.7% of males. This can indicate that those users might be subject to some online risks and threats so that their personal data can be revealed or lost with their phones. And this can be considered a vulnerability.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 16: Users experience by genderCategory Gender

Male Female

n Gender (%) Total (%) n Gender (%) Total (%)

Lost or stolen phone Yes 70 28.7 20.2 33 32.4 9.5

No 174 71.3 50.3 69 67.6 19.9

Receiving any pictures from users in contacts Yes 212 86.9 61.4 93 92.1 27

No 32 13.1 9.3 8 7.9 2.3

Receiving/ sending any messages or photos from/to contacts that users do not know personally Yes 108 44.3 31.3 37 36.6 10.7

No 136 55.7 39.4 64 63.4 18.6

Receiving any content from other users that users found upsetting, offensive, or bullying Yes 38 15.6 11 20 19.8 5.8

No 206 84.4 59.7 81 80.2 23.5

From Table 416, more females were likely to receive any pictures from users in contacts on their mobile phones, this accounts for the highest percentages with 92.1% of females compared with 86.9% of males. Whereas more males 13.1% of males reported that they have not received any pictures from users on their contact list and less by 4% of females have stated the same.

From Table 416, more females were more likely to not receive/ send any messages or photos from/to contacts that user do not know personally on their smartphones, this accounts for the highest percentages with 63.4% of females compared with 55.7% of males. Whereas only 44.3% of males have reported they have received/ sent messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally and less by 8% of females who have already done so.

From Table 416, more females 19.8% of females reported that they have received content from other users that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying, than males with only 15.6% of males have got such contents. This can indicate that females are more vulnerable to risks of bulling, sexting than males. More males have not received any content from other users that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying on their smartphones, this accounts for the highest percentages with 84.4% of males compared with 80.2% of females.

By age

Out of 147 who are aged (12-16), 29.9 % have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since 2014 and 21.1% have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for 2 years of the survey time, this counts as the highest percentages within this age group. For the age group (17-21), out of 157, the highest percentage is for users who have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for 4 years with 17.8%, the next highest percentage is for those who have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for six years with 14.6%. Whereas for the age group who are 22 or older, out of 42 users, 35.7% have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since more than 8 years and nobody have got their first Internet-enabled phone for one year of the survey time. So, it can be concluded that older users within the survey population have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since longer time, whereas younger teenagers have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since less years. This conclusion is logical and true in the reality.

A Kruskal-Wallis test provided very strong evidence of a difference (p<0.001) between the mean ranks of at least one pair of groups. Dunns pairwise tests were carried out for the three pairs of groups. There was very strong evidence (p<0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21, between those who aged 12-16 and 22 and between those who are aged 17-21 and 22, with a mean rank of 105.86 for age group (12-16), 213.32 for age group (17-21) and 261.39 for the third age group (22) and 2(2) =126.322.

From Table 417, most users have reported that they have not lost or have their phones stolen, with a high percentage for age group (17-21) with 75.2%, 67.3% out of 147 who are aged (12-16) said that they have not experienced this issue. And 61.9% of users who are aged 22 or older, reported that they have not got their phones lost or stolen. Overall, most smartphone users reported that they have reported that have lost their phones or had them stolen. This can indicate that those users might be subject to some online risks and threats, so that their personal data can be revealed or lost with their phones.

Most users are more likely to receive any pictures from people in contacts on their mobile phones, this accounts for the highest percentages with 78.8% of users who are aged (12-16), 94.3% of users who are aged (17-21), and 100% of the users who are aged 22 or older. Whereas few percentages were reported for those who inclined to not receive any pictures from users in contacts on their mobile phones. Older generations were receiving pictures from people in their contact lists than the younger generation.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2)=23.935, p0.001, with a mean rank of 156.37 for age group (12-16), 183.11 for age group (17-21) and 193.00 for the third age group (22), and that there was no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=0.910.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 17: Users experience by ageCategory

Duration since users got their first Internet-enabled phone by age group, N=346

(12-16) (17-21) (22)

n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%)

Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%)

Duration since users got their first Internet-enabled phone 1 Year 44 29.9 12.7 3 1.9 0.9 0 0 0

2 Years 31 21.1 9 8 5.1 2.3 1 2.4 0.3

3 Years 24 16.3 6.9 10 6.4 2.9 2 4.8 0.6

4 Years 18 12.2 5.2 28 17.8 8.1 4 9.5 1.2

5 Years 14 9.5 4 33 21 9.5 3 7.1 0.9

6 Years 4 2.7 1.2 23 14.6 6.6 7 16.7 2

7 Years 6 4.1 1.7 21 13.4 6.1 4 9.5 1.2

8 Years 5 3.4 1.4 12 7.6 3.5 6 14.3 1.7

>8Years 1 0.7 0.3 19 12.1 5.5 15 35.7 4.3

Lost or stolen phone Yes 48 32.7 13.9 39 24.8 11.3 16 38.1 4.6

No 99 67.3 28.6 118 75.2 34.1 26 61.9 7.5

Receiving pictures from users in contacts Yes 115 78.8 33.3 148 94.3 42.9 42 100 12.2

No 31 21.2 9 9 5.7 2.6 0 0 0

Receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts that users do not know personally Yes 46 31.5 13.3 79 50.3 22.9 20 47.6 5.8

No 100 68.5 29 78 49.7 22.6 22 52.4 6.4

Receiving any content from other users that users found upsetting, offensive, or bullying Yes 24 16.4 7 25 15.9 7.2 9 21.4 2.6

No 122 83.6 35.4 132 84.1 38.3 33 78.6 9.6

From Table 417, out of 146 who aged (12-16), only 31.5% are inclined to receive/ send messages or photos from/to contacts that user do not know personally, and 68.5% do not contact with strangers. Whereas a half of the users who are aged (17-21), 50.3% have reported that they receive/ send messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally, while less by 1% of this age group do not do so. Also, closer to half of the users who are aged 22 or older, 47.6% had stated that they keep in touch with strangers. More users who are aged (17-21) are inclined to receive/ send messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally on their smart phones, more than users who are aged less than 17 or older than 21. So, clearly it can be said that older teenagers were more motivated to receive/ send messages or photos from/to strangers other than the users in the other age groups.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21, 2(2)=11.567, p0.001, with a mean rank of 154.85 for age group (12-16), 187.30 for age group (17-21) and 182.64 for the third age group (22). And there was no evidence of a difference between the other pairs who aged 12-16 and 22 and between those who are17-21 and 22, with p=1.000 and (12-16, 22), with p=0.188.

From Table 417, out of 146 who aged (12-16), 83% reported that they have not received any content from other users that users found upsetting, offensive, or bullying, and only 16.4% did so. Whereas out of 157 of the users who are aged (17-21), 84.1% have reported that they have not received any content from other users that users found upsetting, offensive, or bullying, while only 15.9% of this age group did so. Also, just over three quarters of the users who are aged 22 or older have stated that they have got any such contents. Most smartphone users in all different groups are inclined to not receive/ send any content from other users that users found upsetting, offensive, or bullying on their smart phones. So, clearly young teenagers and older teenagers in all age groups are cautious enough when they are sending or receiving contents on their smartphones. And this indicates that smartphones users in our study are less vulnerable to risks of bulling, sexting.

By level of education

From Table 420, out of 199 who are university level, 18.1 % have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for 5 years and 17.1% have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since years of the survey time, this counts as the highest percentages within the university level. For the school level, out of 147, the highest percentage is for users who have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for 1 year with 29.9%, the next highest percentage is for those who have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for 2 years with 21.1%. So, it can be concluded that users in the university level within the survey population have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since longer time, whereas school pupils have owned their first Internet-enabled phone since less years. This conclusion is logical and can be true in the reality.

Duration of owing a smartphone: there is a statistically significant difference in the users experience of duration of owing a smartphone across the two academic level students (mean rank = 223.63, Md=6.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank = 105.64, Md=2.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=4651.000, Z=-10.924, p=0.000).

From Table 420 out of 199 who are university students, 27.6 % have reported that they have lost their phones or had them stolen, whereas nearly three quarters of them have got this experience. For the school level pupils, out of 147, 32.7% have stated that they have got this bad experience, while 67.3% have not done so. So, clearly, some of our survey participants have reported that they have lost or have their phones stolen, this can indicate that those people might be subject to some online risks and threats, so that their personal data can be revealed or lost with their phones. And this can be considered as a vulnerability.

From Table 4-20, out of 199 who are at university, the majority 95.5% of them were likely to receive pictures from people in their contacts, whereas only less than 10% of them have reported that they have not done so. Out of 146 who are school pupils, just above three quarters of them 78.8% stated that they have received pictures from people in their contact list, whereas only 21.2% of them have not received any pictures from people in contacts. So, clearly, regarding receiving pictures from people in contacts, the results show that most of the users were likely to receive pictures from people in their contacts. Low proportions were reported for students who have not got this experience for both educational levels.

There is a statistically significant in the users experience of receiving any pictures from people in contacts on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=185.20, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=156.37, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=12099.500, Z=-4.783, p=0.000).

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 18: Receiving any pictures from people in your contacts School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 60 23 152 9

Female 55 8 38 0

Total 115 31 190 9

From Table 4-11, out of 198 who are at the university, 49.2% of them were inclined to receive/ send any messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally on their smartphones, whereas higher by 1.6% of them have reported they have not received/ sent any messages or photos from/to strangers. Out of 146 who are school pupils, 32.2% stated that they have received/ sent any messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally, whereas 67.8% of them have not got any such contents. So, clearly more users in this survey showed that they have not received/ sent any messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally.

Receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones: there is a statistically significant in the users experience of receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=185.40, Md=0.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=156.03, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=12049.500, Z=-3.166, p=0.002).

Receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones is dominant for male participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 19: Received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 25 58 83 78

Female 22 41 15 23

Total 47 99 98 101

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 20: Users experience by level of educationCategory

Level of education

University level School level

n Educational level (%) Total (%) n Educational

level (%) Total (%)

Duration since participants got their first Internet-enabled phone 1 Year 3 1.5 0.9 44 29.9 12.7

2 Years 9 4.5 2.6 31 21.1 9

3 Years 12 6 3.5 24 16.3 6.9

4 Years 32 16.1 9.2 18 12.2 5.2

5 Years 36 18.1 10.4 14 9.5 4

6 Years 29 14.6 8.4 5 3.4 1.4

7 Years 26 13.1 7.5 5 3.4 1.4

8 Years 18 9 5.2 5 3.4 1.4

> 8 Years 34 17.1 9.8 1 0.7 0.3

Lost or stolen phone Yes 55 27.6 15.9 48 32.7 13.9

No 144 72.4 41.6 99 67.3 28.6

Receiving any pictures from people in contacts Yes 190 95.5 55.1 115 78.8 33.3

No 9 4.5 2.6 31 21.2 9

Receiving/ sending any messages or photos from/to contacts that users do not know personally Yes 98 49.2 28.4 47 32.2 13.6

No 101 50.8 29.3 99 67.8 28.7

Receiving any content from other people that users found upsetting, offensive, or bullying Yes 34 17.1 9.9 24 16.4 7

No 165 82.9 47.8 122 83.6 35.4

From Table 4-20 out of 199 who are at university, 17.1% reported that they have received content from other people that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying, whereas 82.9% have reported that they have not received any such contents. For the school level pupils, out of 146, 16.4% have stated that they have received these contents, whereas 83.6% of them stated that they have not experienced this issue. So, clearly, high percentages of our survey participants have reported that they have not received content from other people that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying, while less than 20% have got such contents in both educational levels. This can indicate that those both university students and school pupils who have received such contents might be vulnerable to some risks of bulling, sexting.

Statistical results for users behaviour

By gender

The stored data includes (photos of yourself, photos of friends, and photos of family, messages, or emails) and this question allowed the users to select all that apply to them from the list. The present study results indicated that females use their smartphones to store their personal photos, their friends photos, and their familys photos more than males. Whereas the results of this study indicated that males use their smartphones to store emails more than females. And nearly equal percentages were found for storing text messages on smartphones.

Table 4-21 showed the stored data on users smartphones, the users store different data on their smartphones which varied from storing photos of their selves, photos of their families and friends to storing text messages and emails. It can be noticed that the highest number is for storing text messages with 91% for both genders. The second highest number being for storing photos of users friends on their smartphones with 72.3%. And close numbers for photos of their selves, their families, and emails with 69.4%, 70.5% and 70.8 respectively. So, it can be concluded that males were more interested in storing text messages and emails on their smartphones in compared to their other stored data on these devices. Similarly, females showed the same interest in storing data with an exception in storing their photos, and friends and families photos.

Mann-Whitney U test has found that there are statically significant gender differences in the behaviour of smartphone users in storing photos of their selves, photos of their friends and families. Descriptive statistics showed that there is a statistically significant difference in storing personal photos on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank=194.27, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=164.82, Md=1.00) of males (n=244) and females (n =102), (U=10325.000, Z= -3.128, p=0.002). Storing photos of users is dominant for female participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 21: Photos of users stored on smartphones School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 56 27 101 60

Female 54 10 29 9

Total 110 37 130 69

Also, the test showed that there is a statistically significant gender difference in storing photos of their friends on their smartphones (mean rank =191.75, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=165.13, Md=1.00). Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in behaviour of males (n=243) and females (n=102), (U=10480.500, Z= -2.924, p=0.003). From Table 4-22, storing photos of their friends is dominant for female participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 22: Photos of friends stored on smartphones

School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 53 30 112 48

Female 51 13 34 4

Total 104 43 146 52

For photos of users families, the test showed that there is a statistically significant difference in storing photos of their families on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank =190.58, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank =166.36, Md=1.00) of males (n =243) and females (n =102), (U=10702.000, Z= -2.600, p= 0.009). Storing family photos is dominant for female participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 23: Photos of family stored on smartphones School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 62 21 100 61

Female 53 11 29 9

Total 115 32 129 70

From Table 4-22, it can be demonstrated that more females were more likely to use their smartphones for educational purposes than males with 79.4% and 73.4% respectively. This current study indicated that there is not an association between genders in using their smartphones for educational activities.

From Table 4-22, it can be demonstrated that nearly 80% of males and females reported that they changed their mobile phones for more than a year. Low proportions were reported for users who change their mobile phones every year or for less than a year for both genders with 7.5% and 6.4% for boys and 4.1% and 1.7% for girls.

Also, more females were more likely to use the Internet at their own rooms than their counterparts, this accounts for the highest percentages with 62.4% of females compared with 56.6% of males. The next high percentages were for using the Internet at home but not at their own rooms with a higher percentage of boys 33.2% and 28.7% of girls. Low proportions were reported for users who preferred to use the Internet at school, in the caf and other places for both sexes. Both genders prefer to use the Internet in their own rooms or at home. Only few users were interested to use their Internet in other places.

From Table 422, vast majority of smartphone users in this survey have downloaded mobile apps to their smartphones. A high percentage of females have reported that they have installed mobile apps to their smartphone devices, with 99% of females, and 95.5% of males have done so. Very few proportions of both sexes have reported that they have never installed any mobile apps to their smartphones and few percentages of those were not sure whether they have installed any mobile apps to their devices or not. It can be concluded that as smartphones usage on a rise, mobile apps are increasing as well, and as from the findings it was found that most of the users are installing apps to their devices, they can be subject to security risks and online threats in the app installation process.

From Table 422, it can be noticed that most users have installed Snapchat app on their smartphones, with more females 74.3% than their counterparts with 59.4% of males. On the other side, more males were likely to install Snapchat with 40.6% than females with 25.7%. The current study indicated that there were gender differences in installing Snapchat app on the users smartphones.

Snapchat: there is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Snapchat app on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 191.09, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 165.51, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 10494.500, Z = -2.604, p = 0.009). Using Snapchat is dominant for female participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 24: Snapchat app installed on smart phone

School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 41 42 104 57

Female 53 10 22 16

Total 94 52 126 73

It can be noticed that the nearly half of users have installed WhatsApp app on their smartphones, with very close percentages of both sexes, with 54.5% of males and 53.5% of females. On the other hand, again very close percentages of both males and females who have not installed WhatsApp app with 45.4% of males and higher by 1% for females.

Also, the minority of users have installed Viber app on their smartphones, with more females than males, 17.8%, 13.9% respectively. On the other hand, the more than three quarters of users of both males and females have not installed Viber app with 86.1% of males and less by 4% for females.

It can be illustrated that the survey users were likely to download some apps rather than others. From the figures, the most used apps are Messenger, Snapchat, Skype, and WhatsApp. Very close percentages of females and males have downloaded Messenger to their smartphones with 76.2% and 75.4% respectively. A high percentage 74.3% of females, then males 59.4% have downloaded Snapchat to their devices. Higher proportions just more than a half of boys have installed WhatsApp and skype apps to their smartphones, with 54.5% of males and 53.5% of females for WhatsApp and 57.8% of males and 45.5% of females for Skype app.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 25: Users behaviour by genderCategory Gender

Male Female

n Gender (%) Total (%) n Gender (%) Total (%)

Data stored on smartphones Photos of yourself 157 64.3 45.4 83 81.4 24

Photos of friends 165 67.9 47.8 85 83.3 24.6

Photos of family 162 66.4 46.8 82 80.4 23.7

Text Messages 244 91.8 64.7 93 91.2 26.9

Emails 179 73.4 51.7 66 64.7 19.1

Educational activities Yes 179 73.4 51.7 81 79.4 23.4

No 65 26.6 18.8 21 20.6 6.1

Changing a mobile phone Every year 26 10.7 7.5 14 13.9 4.1

Less than a year 22 9 6.4 6 5.9 1.7

More than a year 196 80.3 56.8 81 80.2 23.5

Users favourite place to use the Internet At own room 138 56.6 40 63 62.4 18.3

At home (not in your own room) 81 33.2 23.5 29 28.7 8.4

School 6 2.5 1.7 0 0 0

Installing apps on users phones Yes 233 95.5 67.5 100 99 29

No 8 3.3 2.3 1 1 0.3

Not sure 3 1.2 0.9 0 0 0

Snapchat app Yes 145 59.4 42 75 74.3 21.7

No 99 40.6 28.7 26 25.7 7.5

WhatsApp Yes 133 54.5 38.6 54 53.5 15.7

No 111 45.5 32.2 47 46.5 13.6

Viber Yes 34 13.9 9.9 18 17.8 5.2

No 210 86.1 60.9 83 82.2 24.1

ooVoo Yes 25 10.2 7.2 27 26.7 7.8

No 219 89.8 63.5 74 73.3 21.4

Skype Yes 141 57.8 40.9 46 45.5 13.3

No 103 42.2 29.9 55 54.5 15.9

Messenger Yes 184 75.4 53.3 77 76.2 22.3

No 60 24.6 17.4 24 23.8 7

Imo Yes 1 0.4 0.3 0 0 0

No 243 99.6 70.4 101 100 29.3

6rounds app Yes 3 1.2 0.9 1 1 0.3

No 241 98.8 69.9 100 99 29

Skout Yes 3 1.2 0.9 0 0 0

No 241 98.8 69.9 101 100 29.3

Omegle Yes 12 4.9 3.5 5 5 1.4

No 232 95.1 67.2 96 95 27.8

Azar Yes 1 0.4 0.3 0 0 0

No 243 99.6 70.4 101 100 29.3

Chatroulette Yes 8 3.3 2.3 0 0 0

No 236 96.7 68.4 101 100 29.3

Minority of respondents have reported that they have downloaded Viber and ooVoo mobile apps to their phones. For both apps, higher percentages of females than males have done so. There is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing ooVoo app on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 193.11, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 164.67, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 10290.500, Z = -3.889, p = 0.000).

And there is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Skype app on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 179.18, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 158.06, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 10813.500, Z = -2.074, p = 0.038). Skype app is dominant for male participants in both education levels.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 26: Skype app installed on smartphones

School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 45 38 96 65

Female 28 35 18 20

Total 73 73 38 85

Overall, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar and Chatroulette are the less used apps among users in our survey. From the results, the most used apps are Snapchat, Messenger, Skype, and WhatsApp. While, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar and Chatroulette are the less used apps among users between both genders in this survey. And there were gender differences in installing Snapchat, Skype, and ooVoo mobile apps to users smartphones, whereas the survey findings have not shown any significant gender differences in installing WhatsApp, Messenger, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle Azar and Chatroulette apps.

By age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 27: Users behaviour by age groupCategory

Age group

(12-16) (17-21) (22)

n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%) n Age (%) Total (%)

Number of contacts on users phones (0-50) 105 71.4 30.5 91 58.7 26.5 20 47.6 5.8

(51-100) 31 21.1 9 44 28.4 12.8 10 23.8 2.9

(101-150) 5 3.4 1.5 12 7.7 3.5 2 4.8 0.6

(151-200) 2 1.4 0.6 2 1.3 0.6 5 11.9 1.5

>200 4 2.7 1.2 6 3.9 1.7 5 11.9 1.5

Smartphones most use by age Entertainment 40 27.2 11.6 55 35 15.9 12 28.6 3.5

Contacting friends 83 56.5 24 73 46.5 21.1 21 50 6.1

Visiting web sites 3 2 0.9 22 14 6.4 6 14.3 1.7

Other 21 14.3 6.1 7 4.5 2 3 7.1 0.9

Data stored on smartphones Photos of yourself 110 74.8 31.8 104 66.2 30.1 26 61.9 7.5

Photos of friends 104 70.7 30.1 114 73.1 33 32 76.2 9.3

Photos of family 115 78.2 33.2 104 66.2 30.1 25 59.5 7.2

Text Messages 135 91.8 39 149 94.9 43.1 33 78.6 9.5

Emails 83 56.5 24 131 83.4 37.9 31 73.8 9

Educational activities Yes 92 62.6 26.6 131 83.4 37.9 37 88.1 10.7

No 55 37.4 15.9 26 16.6 7.5 5 11.9 1.4

Duration of changing a mobile phone Every year 24 16.3 7 13 8.3 3.8 3 7.1 0.9

Less than a year 8 5.4 2.3 15 9.6 4.3 5 11.9 1.4

More than a year 115 78.2 33.3 128 82.1 37.1 34 81 9.9

Users favourite place to use the Internet

At own room 81 55.5 23.5 98 62.4 28.4 22 52.4 6.4

At home (not in your own room) 52 35.6 15.1 43 27.4 12.5 15 35.7 4.3

School 1 0.7 0.3 5 3.2 1.4 0 0 0

Caf 3 2.1 0.9 0 0 0 2 4.8 0.6

Other 9 6.2 2.6 11 7 3.2 3 7.1 0.9

Installing apps on users mobile phones Yes 136 93.2 39.4 155 98.7 44.9 42 100 12.2

No 7 4.8 2 2 1.3 0.6 0 0 0

Not Sure 3 2.1 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0

Apps installed on smartphones Snapchat Yes 95 65.1 27.5 116 73.9 33.6 9 21.4 2.6

No 51 34.9 14.8 41 26.1 11.9 33 78.6 9.6

WhatsApp Yes 55 37.7 15.9 96 61.1 27.8 36 85.7 10.4

No 91 62.3 26.4 61 38.9 17.7 6 14.3 1.7

Viber Yes 17 11.6 4.9 26 16.6 7.5 9 21.4 2.6

No 129 88.4 37.4 131 83.4 38 33 78.6 9.6

ooVoo Yes 46 31.5 13.3 5 3.2 1.4 1 2.4 0.3

No 100 68.5 29 152 96.8 44.1 41 97.6 11.9

Skype Yes 72 49.3 20.9 95 60.5 27.5 20 47.6 5.8

No 74 50.7 21.4 62 39.5 18 22 52.4 6.4

Messenger Yes 201 69.9 29.6 135 86 39.1 24 57.1 7

No 44 30.1 12.8 22 14 6.4 18 42.9 5.2

Imo Yes 0 0 0 1 0.6 0.3 0 0 0

No 146 100 42.3 156 99.4 45.2 42 100 12.2

6rounds Yes 2 1.4 0.6 1 0.6 0.3 1 2.4 0.3

No 144 98.6 41.7 156 99.4 45.2 41 97.6 11.9

Skout Yes 1 0.7 0.3 1 0.6 0.3 1 2.4 0.3

No 145 99.3 42 156 99.4 45.2 41 97.6 11.9

Omegle Yes 14 9.6 4.1 3 1.9 0.9 0 0 0

No 132 90.4 38.3 154 98.1 44.6 42 100 12.2

Azar Yes 0 0 0 1 0.6 0.3 0 0 0

No 146 100 42.3 156 99.4 45.2 42 100 12.2

Chatroulette Yes 4 2.7 1.2 2 1.3 0.6 2 4.8 0.6

No 142 97.3 41.2 155 98.7 44.9 40 95.2 11.6

From Table 4-27 out of 147 who are aged (12-16), 71.4 % have got (0-50) contacts on their phones and very low percentages have got more than 50 contacts on their contact list, this counts as the highest percentage within this age group. For the age group (17-21), out of 155, the highest percentage is for users who have got (0-50) contacts on their contact list with 58.7%, the next highest percentage is for those who have got (51-100) contacts on their phones with 28.4%. Whereas for the age group who are 22 or older, out of 42 users, 47.6% have got (51-100) contacts on their contact list and low percentages were reported for the highest number of contacts.

So, it can be concluded that older teenagers and young teenagers have closer numbers of contacts, which was ranger from 0-100.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference only between the age groups 12-16 and 22, 2(2)=12.913, p=0.002, with a mean rank of 156.29 for age group (12-16), 178.54 for age group (17-21) and 206.95 for the third age group (22). And that there was not any statistical difference has been found between those who are 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 17-21 and 22, with p=0.071, and p=0.167 respectively.

From Table 4-27, it can be illustrated that the highest percentage is for those who mostly use their phones for social activities, particularly for contacting their friends, out of 147 who are aged (12-16), 56.5% use their phones mostly to contact their friends, this is considered as the highest percentage within this age group, and 27.2 % of them are using their phones mostly for entertainment.

For the next age group (17-21), out of 157, the highest percentage is for users whos their most use of their phones for contacting their friends, with 46.5%, the next highest percentage is for entertainment with 35%.

Also, for the age group who are 22 or older, out of 42 users, 50% of them are using their phones mostly for contact purposes, and 28% using them for entertainment. A few percentages were reported for visiting web sites via their phones. And lower percentages were stated for using the phones for either all the above or do other activities such as social networks, contacting family and, playing games, and using SM.

So, it can be concluded that all age groups are using their phones mostly to contact their friends and entertainment, whereas few percentages were shown for other activities.

The stored data on the users smartphones includes (photos of their selves, photos of friends, and photos of family, messages, or emails) and this question allowed the users to select all that apply to them from the list.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001), adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of no differences can be found between any of the age groups, 2(2)= 8.006, p0.001, with a mean rank of 186.84 for age group (12-16), 166.10 for age group (17-21) and 154.48 for the third age group (22).

From Table 4-27, it can be illustrated that the highest percentage of stored data on smartphones for the age group (12-16) is for storing text messages with 91.8%, the following highest percentage is for storing photos of families with 78.2%, and very close percentages for photos of the users friends, themselves, with 70.7%, and 74.8% respectively, and out of 147 there is only 56.5% who store emails on their smartphones in this age group. Whereas for the second age group (17-21), out of 157, there is 94.9% who are aged 12-16, store text messages on their smartphones, and this accounts as the highest percentage for stored data on the smartphones. Also, out of 157, there is 83.4% of the users within this age group, who store emails on their smartphones. And there is 66.2% of them store photos of themselves and their families and these are the lowest percentages within this age group. Whereas for the older users who are aged 22 or more, storing text messages accounts the highest percentage with 78.6%, the next highest percentage is for users who store their friends photos. 73.8% of them store emails and 61.9% of them store their photos on their smartphones. While only 59.5% store their families photos on their smartphones. Overall, users within all age groups store text messages as the highest percentages.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 17-21 and 22 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22 ), 2(2)= 11.494, p0.001, with a mean rank of 173.88 for age group (12-16), 179.18 for age group (17-21) and 150.93 for the third age group (22). And that there was no difference has been found between those who are 12-16 and 17-21, with p=1.000.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21, 2(2)=26.860, p0.001, with a mean rank of 148.68 for age group (12-16), 195.35 for age group (17-21) and 178.69 for the third age group (22). And that there was no difference has been found between those who aged 12-16 and 22, with p=0.088 and between those who are17-21 and 22, with p=0.670.

From Table 4-27, out of 147 who are aged (12-16), 62.6% use their phones for school related activities. While out of 157 who aged (17-21), 83.4% use their phones for educational activities. And for those who are aged 22 or older, 88.1% of them use their phones for educational purposes. Overall, more users aged older than 17 are more likely to use their smartphones for educational purposes than users less than 17.

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2)= 21.907, p0.001, with a mean rank of 151.77 for age group (12-16), 187.85 for age group (17-21) and 195.90 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=1.000.

From Table 4-27, it can be demonstrated that out of 147 who aged (12-16), 78.2% change their phones within more than a year, while small percentages were reported for both every year and less than a year, with 5.4% and 16.3% respectively. The same for the other age groups, higher percentages were reported for changing phones within more than a year and every year, with 82.1% out of 156 for age group (17-21) and 81% for the age group 22 or older. So, overall, users in all different age groups are more likely to change their smartphones for the duration of more than one a year.

From Table 4-27, most users are more likely to use their smartphones at their own rooms than in the other places. Out of 146 who are aged (12-16), 55.5% prefer to use the Internet in their own rooms, and 35.6% of them prefer to use it at home but not in their own rooms. Out of 157 who are aged (17-21), 62.3% prefer to use the Internet in their own rooms, and 27.4% of them prefer to use it at home but not in their own rooms. A half of the users who are aged 22 or older prefer to use the Internet in their own rooms, and 35.7% of them prefer to use it at home but not in their own rooms. Minority of percentages were reported for all age groups who prefer to use the Internet at school, in a caf, or other places.

From Table 4-27, vast majority of smartphone users in this survey have downloaded mobile apps to their smartphones. Out of 146 who aged (12-16), 93.2% reported that they have installed mobile apps to their smartphone devices, whereas very few percentages were reported for those who have not installed any mobile apps to their smartphones or were not sure if they did so. 100% of users who are aged 22 or older have installed mobile apps to their smartphone devices and less by 2% for those who are aged (17-21). Only 2% of respondents who are aged (12-17) have not installed any mobile apps to their smartphones.

It can be concluded that as smartphones usage is on a rise, mobile apps usage is increasing as well, and as from the findings it was found that most of the users are installing apps to their devices, so, they might be subject to security risks and online threats in the app installation process.

From Table 4-27, it can be illustrated that the survey users were likely to download some apps rather than others. From the figures, the most used apps are Messenger, Snapchat, Skype, and WhatsApp. Out of 146 of the users who are aged (12-16), 65.1% have downloaded Snapchat app to their smartphones. And a higher percentage of users who are aged (17-21) 73.9% have downloaded Snapchat app as well, whereas for users aged 22 or older, only 21% have used this app. More than three quarters of users aged 22 or older have installed WhatsApp to their smartphones, with 85.7%, out of 157 who are aged (17-21), 61.1% have installed WhatsApp to their smartphones and only 37.7% of younger teenagers have installed this app to their smartphones.

Snapchat: same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 17-21 and 22 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, in installing Snapchat, 2(2)= 39.535, p0.001, with a mean rank of 175.24 for age group (12-16), 190.45 for age group (17-21) and 99.96 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 12-16 and 17-21, with p=0.333.

WhatsApp: same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, also, between those 17-21 and 22, in installing WhatsApp, 2(2)=35.820, p0.001, with a mean rank of 144.48 for age group (12-16), 184.98 for age group (17-21) and 227.36 for the third age group (22).

High percentages of users aged (12-16) have downloaded Messenger and Skype apps to their smartphones with 69.9% and 49.3% respectively. Higher proportions of users aged (12-17) have downloaded these two apps to their smartphones with 86% for Messenger and 60.5% for Skype. 57.1% of users who are aged 22 or older have installed Messenger to their devices and 47.6% of them have downloaded Skype. Minority of respondents have reported that they have downloaded Viber and ooVoo mobile apps to their phones.

ooVoo: same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the two different age groups (12-16, 17-21) and (12-16, 22), in installing ooVoo app 2(2)=53.268, p0.001, with a mean rank of 201.35 for age group (12-16), 152.49 for age group (17-21) and 151.11 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=1.000.

Messenger: same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 17-21 and 22, in installing Messenger app, 2(2)=19.516, p0.001, with a mean rank of 163.01 for age group (12-16), 190.83 for age group (17-21) and 141.07 for the third age group (22). And no difference has been found between those who are 12-16 and 22, with p=0.273.

Omegle: same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, in installing Omegle app, 2(2)=11.964, p0.001, with a mean rank of 181.04 for age group (12-16), 167.80 for age group (17-21) and 164.50 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=1.000.

Overall, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar and Chatroulette are the less used apps among users in all age groups in our survey.

From our results, the most used apps are Snapchat, Messenger, Skype, and WhatsApp. While, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar and Chatroulette are the less used apps among users in all age groups in our survey. And there were age differences in installing Snapchat, WhatsApp, ooVoo, Messenger, and Omegle mobile apps, whereas the survey findings have not shown any significant age differences in installing Skype, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Azar and Chatroulette app.

By level of education

From Table 4-28, out of 197 who are university students, 56.9 % have got (0-50) contacts on their phones, about one quarter of them have got (51-100) contacts and very low percentages have got more than 100 contacts on their contact list, this counts as the highest percentage within this level of education. For the school level, out of 147, the highest percentage is for users who have got (0-50) contacts on their contact list with 70.7%, the next highest percentage is for those who have got (51-100) contacts on their phones with 21.8%. Whereas few figures were reported for those who have more than 100 contacts on their contact list. So, it can be concluded that smartphone users in both educational levels have closer numbers of contacts, which was ranger from (0-100).

Number of contacts on users phones: there is a statistically significant difference in the number contacts on users smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=200.72, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=153.39, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=10624.500, Z=-4.882, p=0.000).

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 28: Users behaviour by level of educationCategory

Level of education, (N=346)

University level School level

n Educational level (%) Total (%) n Educational level (%) Total (%)

Number of contacts on users phones (0-50) 112 56.9 32.6 104 70.7 30.2

(51-100) 53 26.9 15.4 32 21.8 9.3

(101-150) 14 7.1 4.1 5 3.4 1.5

(151-200) 7 3.6 2 2 1.4 0.6

>200 11 5.6 3.2 4 2.7 1.2

Smartphones most use Entertainment 68 34.2 19.7 39 26.5 11.3

Contacting friends 94 47.2 27.2 83 56.5 24

Visiting web sites 28 14.1 8.1 3 2 0.9

Other 9 4.5 2.6 22 15 6.4

Stored information on phones Photos of yourself 130 65.3 37.6 110 74.8 31.8

Photos of friends 146 73.7 42.3 104 70.7 30.1

Photos of family 115 78.2 33.2 244 70.5 70.5

Text Messages 135 91.8 39 317 91.6 91.6

Emails 163 81.9 47.1 82 55.8 23.7

Using phone for school-related activities Yes 168 84.4 48.6 92 62.6 26.6

No 31 15.6 9 55 37.4 15.9

Changing a mobile phone Every year 16 8.1 4.6 24 16.3 7

Less than a year 20 10.1 5.8 8 5.4 2.3

More than a year 162 81.8 47 115 78.2 33.3

Users favourite place to use the Internet At own room 121 60.8 35.1 80 54.8 23.2

At home (not in your own room) 57 28.6 16.5 53 36.3 15.4

School 5 2.5 1.4 1 0.7 0.3

Caf 2 1 0.6 3 2.1 0.9

Other 14 7 4.1 9 6.2 2.6

Installing apps on users mobile phones Yes 197 99 57.1 136 93.2 39.4

No 2 1 0.6 7 4.8 2

Not Sure 0 0 0 3 2.1 0.9

Apps installed on smartphones

Snapchat app Yes 126 63.3 36.5 94 64.4

No 73 36.7 21.2 52 35.6

WhatsApp Yes 131 65.8 38 56 38.4

No 68 34.2 19.7 90 61.6

Viber Yes 35 17.6 10.1 17 11.6

No 164 82.4 47.5 129 88.4

ooVoo Yes 6 3 1.7 46 31.5

No 193 97 55.9 100 68.5

Skype Yes 114 57.3 33 73 50

No 85 42.7 24.6 73 50

Messenger Yes 158 79.4 45.8 103 70.5

No 41 20.6 11.9 43 29.5

Imo Yes 1 0.5 0.3 0 0

No 198 99.5 57.4 146 100

6rounds app Yes 2 1 0.6 2 1.4

No 197 99 57.1 144 98.6

Skout Yes 2 1 0.6 1 0.7

No 197 99 57.1 145 99.3

Omegle Yes 3 1.5 0.9 14 9.6

No 196 98.5 56.8 132 90.4

Azar Yes 1 0.5 0.3 0 0

No 198 99.5 57.4 146 100

Chatroulette Yes 4 2 1.2 4 2.7

No 195 98 56.5 142 97.3

From Table 4-28, it can be illustrated that the highest percentage is for those who are mostly use their phones for social activities, particularly for contacting their friends, out of 199 who are at university, 47.2% are mostly using their smartphones for contacting their friends, and less by 13% for entertainment.

Out of 147 who are at school, just above of a half of school-aged users were likely to use their smartphones mostly to contact their friends, and about one quarter of them preferred to use their smartphones for entertainment.

Few percentages were reported for visiting web sites on their smartphones with only 14.1% for university level students. And 15% out of 147 who are school pupils, use their smartphones for either all the above or do other activities such as social networks, contacting family, using SM, and playing games. Overall, users in this survey were mostly use their smartphones to contact their friends.

From Table 4-28, it can be illustrated that the survey participants were more likely to store kinds of data more than others. From the figures, the most stored data are text messages, emails, and different types of photos. Users in both educational levels are equally likely to store text messages on their devices with about 91%. High percentages of university students reported that they store emails on their smartphones with 81.9% and just above half, out of 147 who are school pupils, 55.8% did so. High percentages of university students have reported that they store photos of themselves, their friends, and their families with 65.3%, 73.7% and 78.2% respectively. Also, high, and close percentages of school-ages pupils have reported that they store photos of themselves, their friends, and their families with 74.8%, 70.7% and 70.5% respectively.

So, to conclude, from our results, the most the most stored data on smartphones are text messages, emails, and photos of users, their friends, and their families among university students in our survey, and the most the most stored data on smartphones are text messages, photos of users, their friends, and their families and less used are emails among school pupils.

What users store on their phones devices: the findings reveal that users are storing a variety of information on their phones ranging from photos of their selves, photos of their friends, their families, text messages and emails. Mann-Whitney U test has found that there are statically significant academic level differences in the behaviour of smartphone users in storing photos of their families and emails.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 29: Photos of family stored on smartphones School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 62 21 100 61

Female 53 11 29 9

Total 115 32 129 70

For photos of users families, the test showed that there is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in storing photos of their families on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=186.84, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=163.65, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=12665.500, Z=-2.700, p=0.007). Storing photos of their families is dominant for male participants in both education levels. Similarly, for emails, there is a statistically significant differences in the behaviour of users in storing emails on their smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank=192.70, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=147.50, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=10805.000, Z=-5.276, p=0.000).

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 30: Emails stored on smartphones School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 47 36 132 29

Female 35 29 31 7

Total 82 65 163 36

From Table 4-28, it can be demonstrated that out of 197 who are at university, a high percentage 84.4% have reported that they use their smartphones for educational purposes, while only 15.6% do not do so. Out of 147 who are school-aged pupils, 62.6% started that they use their phones for school-related activities and about half of them did not do so. Clearly, more smartphone users were more likely to use their smartphones for learning purposes. With higher numbers for university users/students.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 31: Using smartphones for school-related activities School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 47 36 132 29

Female 45 19 36 2

Total 92 55 168 31

There is a statistically significant in the behaviour of smartphone users who use their phones for school related activities across the two academic level students (mean rank= 189.55, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank= 151.77, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=11432.500, Z=-4.639, p=0.000).

From Table 4-28, out of 198 who are at university, 81.8% reported that they change their phones within more than a year, whereas10.1% of them change their phones each year, and less than 10% for those who change them every year. Out of 147 who are school pupils, just above three quarters stated that they change their phones within more than a year. Only 16% change their phones every year and few of them change their phones within less than a year. So, clearly, regarding to how often users change their phones, the results show that more users in both educational levels in this survey were more likely to change their mobile phones within more than a year. Low proportions were reported for students who change their mobile phones every year or within less than a year for both educational levels.

From Table 4-28 out of 199 who are university students, 60.8 % were more likely to use the Internet at their own rooms, whereas just above one quarter have reported that they use Internet at home but not at their own rooms. For the school level pupils, out of 146, 54.8% have stated that their favourite place to use the Internet was their own rooms, whereas36.3% of them preferred to use the Internet at home but not at their own rooms.

Low proportions were reported for students who preferred to use the Internet at school, in the caf and other places for both level of education.

So, clearly, high percentages of our survey participants have reported that their favourite place to use the Internet is their own rooms. Low proportions were reported for students who preferred to use the Internet at school, in the caf and other places for both level of education.

From Table 4-28, out of 199 who are at the university, the vast majority 99% of them reported that they have installed mobile apps to their smartphone devices, whereas the minority of them said that they have not installed such apps. Out of 146 who are school-aged pupils, 93.2% stated that they have downloaded apps to their smartphones, whereas less than 5% of them stated that they have not installed any mobile apps to their smartphone, or they were not sure if they have done so. It can be concluded that as smartphones usage on a rise, mobile apps are increasing as well, and as from the findings it was found that most of the participants surveyed have installed apps to their smartphones, they can be subject to security risks and online threats in the app installation process. So, clearly more users in this survey showed that they have installed apps to their smartphones in both educational levels, university, and school.

From Table 4-28, it can be illustrated that the survey participants were likely to download some apps rather than others. From the figures, the most used apps are Messenger, Snapchat, Skype, and WhatsApp mobile apps. Very close percentages of both university students and school pupils have downloaded Messenger to their smartphones with 79.4% and 70.5% respectively. Both users in both educational levels are equally likely to download Snapchat app to their devices with about 63%. High proportions, out of 199 of university students, 65.8% have installed WhatsApp app, and 38.4% for the school-aged pupils. Skype app was nearly equally downloaded by both educational levels students to their smartphones, with 57.3% of university level users and 50% of school pupils. Minority of respondents have reported that they have downloaded Viber app to their phones. For both apps, higher percentages of university students than school pupils have done so.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 32: WhatsApp installed on smartphones School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 33 50 100 61

Female 23 40 31 7

Total 56 90 131 68

WhatsApp: there is a statistically significant in the behaviour of users in installing WhatsApp app on smartphones across the two academic levels (mean rank=193.06, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=145.66, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=10536.000, Z=-5.053, p=0.000). Using WhatsApp is dominant for male participants in both education levels.

Overall, ooVoo, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar and Chatroulette are the less used apps among students in our survey. So, in conclusion, from our results, the most used apps among the survey smartphone users are Snapchat, Messenger, Skype, and WhatsApp mobile apps. While, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar and Chatroulette are the less used apps among students in both educational levels in survey.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 33: ooVoo app installed on smartphones School level University level

Yes No Yes No

Gender Male 19 64 6 155

Female 27 36 0 38

Total 46 100 6 193

ooVoo: there is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing ooVoo app on their smartphones across the two academic level (mean rank=201.35, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=152.20, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n =147), (U=10388.000, Z=-7.297, p=0.000).

Results (3): Factor analysisIn this section factor analysis was used to identify the most important factors followed by the non-parametric test for the new factors of the collected data through the research survey based on some categories (devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour) by demographics.

Factor analysis (Principal component analysis technique) was used to construct the new and important factors affecting users smartphone usage (their behavior, experience, and knowledge) of the survey conducted among school and university smartphone users.

The questionnaire contained a variety of items that examined the knowledge, experience, and behaviour of the users. Factor analysis was used on the responses t o determine whether and how these approaches should be grouped together. It was primarily used in this study to determine whether a group ofany underlying dimensional structure, if any, of a set of a measures ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yong</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>349</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yong &amp; Pearce, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>349</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667670957">349</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yong, An Gie</author><author>Pearce, Sean</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A beginners guide to factor analysis: Focusing on exploratory factor analysis</title><secondary-title>Tutorials in quantitative methods for psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Tutorials in quantitative methods for psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>79-94</pages><volume>9</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Yong & Pearce, 2013). Additionally, reducing the many variables to a manageable size while maintaining as much of the original data. As a result, all of the questionnaire's variables would be represented by the extracted components, which could then be applied to any future investigation ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bryman</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryman, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryman, Alan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social research methods</title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>Oxford university press</publisher><isbn>0199689458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bryman, 2016).

The factorability of the matrix can be assessed using both Bartlett's test of sphericity and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sample adequacy. Bartlett's test of sphericity obtainedsignificant results (p<0.001, p=0.000). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure is 0.650 which is greater than 0.6. If the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure is more than 0.6, and the Bartlett's test of sphericity is significant, so, thefactorability is assumed PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Db2FrZXM8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA5PC9ZZWFyPjxS

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Coakes et al., 2009; Hassan et al., 2012; Markelj & Bernik, 2015). Thus, based on this study results, it is appropriate to proceed with factor analysis to examine factors that affect users smartphone usage (their knowledge, experience, and behavior) among school and university smartphone users as shown in Table 4-34. Moreover, Table 4-35 displays the total variance explained at fifteen stages for factors that affecting users smartphone usage (their knowledge, experience, and behavior) among school and university smartphone users. Fifteen factors were extracted because their eigenvalues are greater than 1. When fifteen factors were extracted, then 60.829% of the variance would be explained.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 34: KMO and Bartlett's Test resultsKMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.650

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 2245.526

Df780

Sig. 0.000

The factors from the variable data were extracted using the PCA estimation process. In order for a factor to be considered for interpretation, it must be able to explain at least the equivalent of one variable's variance, according to Kaiser's criterion. Given that factor analysis's aim is to reduce several variables into a smaller number of components, this is not an unreasonable request. Using this rule, fifteen factors were extracted as shown in Table 4-36. Together they can explain roughly 60.829% of all the variable variances.

In the current study, the communalities were fine, providing additional evidence that the results are suitable for interpretation (see Appendix 21). Table 9-17 shows the rotated factor matrix for the survey. Variable with factor loadings more than 0.45 were selected because ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Tabachnick</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>70</RecNum><DisplayText>(Tabachnick et al., 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>70</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">70</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Tabachnick, Barbara G</author><author>Fidell, Linda S</author><author>Ullman, Jodie B</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using multivariate statistics</title></titles><volume>5</volume><dates><year>2007</year></dates><publisher>pearson Boston, MA</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Tabachnick et al., 2007) stated that loadings equal to 0.45 is believed to be average, whereas loadings 0.32 is thought to be less good. Factor 1 contained three items with factor loadings ranging from 0.79 to 0.83 after using the Varimax rotation method with Kaiser Normalization. The items in Factor 1 are (storing photos of friends on smartphone, storing photos of yourself on smartphone, and storing photos of family on smartphone). Factor 2 consists of 4 items with factor loadings ranging from 0.44 to 0.83.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 35: The Total Variance Explained Rotation Sums of Squared LoadingsTotal Variance Explained

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 3.292 8.230 8.230 3.292 8.230 8.230 2.376 5.939 5.939

2 2.734 6.835 15.065 2.734 6.835 15.065 2.352 5.881 11.820

3 2.430 6.074 21.140 2.430 6.074 21.140 2.085 5.213 17.033

4 1.902 4.754 25.894 1.902 4.754 25.894 1.907 4.767 21.801

5 1.787 4.469 30.362 1.787 4.469 30.362 1.624 4.061 25.862

6 1.459 3.649 34.011 1.459 3.649 34.011 1.563 3.907 29.768

7 1.393 3.484 37.495 1.393 3.484 37.495 1.534 3.834 33.602

8 1.353 3.384 40.878 1.353 3.384 40.878 1.516 3.789 37.391

9 1.281 3.202 44.080 1.281 3.202 44.080 1.476 3.689 41.081

10 1.215 3.038 47.118 1.215 3.038 47.118 1.433 3.581 44.662

11 1.173 2.931 50.049 1.173 2.931 50.049 1.405 3.512 48.174

12 1.134 2.834 52.883 1.134 2.834 52.883 1.304 3.260 51.434

13 1.093 2.731 55.615 1.093 2.731 55.615 1.299 3.247 54.681

14 1.084 2.711 58.325 1.084 2.711 58.325 1.248 3.121 57.802

15 1.001 2.503 60.829 1.001 2.503 60.829 1.211 3.027 60.829

The items in Factor 2 are installing Skout App, 6rounds App, Imo App, and Omegle App on smartphones. Factor 3 consists of five items with factor loadings ranging from 0.44 to 0.71. The items in Factor 3 are (installing WhatsApp App on smartphones, period of getting the first Internet enabled phone, turning off the location tracking (GPS) on smartphones for safety, storing emails on smartphones, and receiving pictures from people in contact list). Factor 4 consists of three items with factor loadings ranging from 0.63 to 0.70. The items in Factor 4 are (how much do you think your parents know about what you do on your phone? Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge? and do your parents ever check how you use your phone?). Factor 5 contained two items with factor loadings ranging from 0.64 to 0.69. The items in Factor 5 are (installing Messenger app and installing Snapchat app on smartphones). Factor 6 consists of three items with factor loadings ranging from 0.51 to 0.70. The items in Factor 6 are (having concerns about revealing location in connection with phone use, having concerns about privacy in connection with phone use, and having concerns about personal information in connection with phone use). Factor 7 is comprised of two items with factor loadings ranging from 0.56 to 0.70. The items in Factor 7 are the period of changing mobile phones and installing ooVoo app on smartphones. Factor 8 comprised of two items with factor loadings ranging from 0.58 to 0.68. The items in Factor 8 are (avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information and clearing browsing history). Factor 9 is comprised of two items with factor loadings ranging from 0.69 to 0.75. The items in Factor 9 are (receiving any content from other people that you found up setting, offensive, or bullying, and receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally). Factor 10 comprised of 3 items with factor loadings ranging from 0.41 to 0.70. The items in Factor 10 are (installing Viber app, installing Skype app, and storing text messages on smartphones). Component 11 consists of two items with factor loadings ranging from 0.58 to 0.70. The items in Factor 11 are (are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? and are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation?). Factor 12 consists of 3 items with factor loadings ranging from 0.45 to 0.63. The items in Factor 12 are (installing apps on smartphones, losing a phone or having it stolen, and phone type). Factor 13 consists of two items with factor loadings ranging from 0.40 to 0.75. The items in Factor 13 are (what do you do with your old phone? and using smartphones for school-related activities). Factor 14 comprises of only one item with factor loading 0.823. The item in Factor 14 is (the most use of smartphones). And finally, component 15 consisted of 2 items with factor loadings ranging from 0.46 to 0.75. The items in Factor 15 are (receiving advice about online security and taking steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages).

Rotated Factor Matrix, Rotated Component Matrix, by using factor analysis, fifteen new factors were successfully constructed and assigned as the factors affecting the smartphone users (see Appendix 22).

Table 4-36 displays the name of the new factors and variance percentages described for each of the factors. The first factor reveals the highest percentage of variance explained when it was extracted. When the first factor, data stored on smartphones was extracted, then 5.939 percent of the variance would be explained.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 36: Name of New Factors with the Percentage of VarianceFactor Name Percentage of Variance

1 Stored photos on smartphones 5.939

2 Apps installed on smartphones 5.881

3 Phone ownership duration, GPS, WhatsApp, emails, and pictures received by known people in contact list 5.213

4 Parental control 4.767

5 Apps installed on smartphones ((WhatsApp app, Snapchat app)) 4.061

6 Concerns in connection with phone use 3.907

7 Phone change and ooVoo app 3.834

8 Safety actions 3.789

9 Sent/received contents 3.689

10 Viber, Skype and text messages 3.581

11 Awareness of risks and permissions 3.512

12 Phone relationships 3.260

13 School activities and old devices 3.247

14 Most use of smartphones (most use) 3.121

15 Online security (security) 3.027

Normality Test for the New Factors

The data normality can be checked by two statistical measures, either Kolmogorov-Smirnov test or Shapiro-Wilk. The Shapiro-Wilk test was used in this study to check the normality of the data as this is considered more efficient when used with small samples ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Razali</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>69</RecNum><DisplayText>(Razali &amp; Wah, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>69</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">69</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Razali, Nornadiah Mohd</author><author>Wah, Yap Bee</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Power comparisons of shapiro-wilk, kolmogorov-smirnov, lilliefors and anderson-darling tests</title><secondary-title>Journal of statistical modeling and analytics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of statistical modeling and analytics</full-title></periodical><pages>21-33</pages><volume>2</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Razali & Wah, 2011). The fifteenth new factors that affect users usage of smartphones among the school and university users were examined using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Table 4-37 illustrates the results of the normality test for the fifteen new factors that affecting users usage of their smartphones. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Razali</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>69</RecNum><DisplayText>(Razali &amp; Wah, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>69</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">69</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Razali, Nornadiah Mohd</author><author>Wah, Yap Bee</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Power comparisons of shapiro-wilk, kolmogorov-smirnov, lilliefors and anderson-darling tests</title><secondary-title>Journal of statistical modeling and analytics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of statistical modeling and analytics</full-title></periodical><pages>21-33</pages><volume>2</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Razali & Wah, 2011) stated that when the significant p-value for the variable is greater than 0.05 (p>0.05), then the data is normally distributed. The Tests of Normality results using the Shapiro-Wilk revealed that the data did not fulfil the normality assumption (p< 0.05).

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 37: Normality Test for the New FactorsFactor Shapiro-Wilk Factor Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

Factor 1 0.239 335 0.000 Factor 9 0.946 335 0.000

Factor 2 0.854 335 0.000 Factor 10 0.938 335 0.000

Factor 3 0.992 335 0.053 Factor 11 0.892 335 0.000

Factor 4 0.983 335 0.001 Factor 12 0.878 335 0.000

Factor 5 0.967 335 0.000 Factor 13 0.977 335 0.000

Factor 6 0.980 335 0.000 Factor 14 0.965 335 0.000

Factor 7 0.969 335 0.000 Factor 15 0.954 335 0.000

Factor 8 0.905 335 0.000 Non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis Tests)

The factor analysis test revealed fifteen new factors. And this part illustrates the non-parametric tests using Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Because the factors did not fulfil the normality requirements. The aim was to conduct the two non-parametric tests. Using Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis Tests was to test the mean differences on the demographic factors on the new factors that may influencing users usage of smartphones among the school and university users. Gender, age, and educational level factors were analyzed as demographic factors in this research.Important factor elements result of non-parametric tests by gender

The first alternative hypothesis is; there are significant mean differences between gender on factors that influencing users usage of smartphones among the school and university smartphone users. Table 4-38 shows the significant findings of the non-parametric test using Mann-Whitney Test for the fifteen new factors that influencing users usage of smartphones among the school and university users by gender.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 38: Significant results from Mann-Whitney Test by genderFactor U-value p-value Mean Rank

Male Female

Factor 2 9572.000 0.011 159.39 188.83

Factor 3 9693.000 0.017 176.10 148.41

Factor 4 8289.000 0.000 182.03 134.08

Factor 6 9983.000 0.043 161.12 184.63

Factor 13 9942.000 0.038 160.95 185.05

Factor 14 9100.000 0.002 157.40 193.64

The results showed there were significant mean differences between genders on the apps that installed on users smartphones (Factor 2), Phone ownership duration, GPS, WhatsApp app, emails, and pictures (Factor 3), Parental control (Factor 4), users concerns in connection with phone use (Factor 6), educational activities and old devices (Factor 13), and users most use of smartphones (Factor 14), on the other hand, the other findings showed that there was no significant mean differences between gender on the other factors of users usage of their smartphones (p>0.05).

The results showed there was a significant mean difference between gender on the apps that installed on users smartphones (Factor 2), (Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there was a statistical difference in the apps installed on users smartphones across the two sexes (mean rank=188.83) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=159.39). Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the apps installed on users smartphones of females (n=98) and males (n=237), (U=9572.000, Z=-2.531, p=0.011), So, it can be concluded that females install more apps compared to males.

Phone ownership duration, GPS, WhatsApp app, emails, and pictures received from known people on their contact list (Factor 3), (Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there was a statistical difference in phone ownership duration, using GPS, installing WhatsApp app, storing emails, and pictures on users smartphones across the two sexes (mean rank=176.10) scored higher on males than females (mean rank =148.41). Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the apps installed on users smartphones of females (n=98) and males (n=237), (U=9693.000, Z=-2.3811, p=0.017).

So, the results revealed that males owned their smartphones in earlier age than females, and they were most likely to use GPS more, installing WhatsApp app more, storing emails, and pictures on their smartphones more than females.

Parental control (Factor 4), (Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there was a statistical difference in parental control on users usage of their smartphones across the two sexes (mean rank=182.03) scored higher on males than females (mean rank=134.08). Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in on users usage of their smartphones of females (n=98) and males (n=237), (U=8289.000, Z=-4.122, p=0.000).

So, the results indicated that the parents were more likely to control the usage of the smartphone for males comparing to females.

Users concerns in connection with phone use (Factor 6), (Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there was a statistical difference in users concerns in connection with phone use of their smartphones across the two sexes (mean rank=184.63) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=161.12). Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in users concerns in connection with phone use of their smartphones of females (n=98) and males (n=237), (U=9983.000, Z=-2.021, p=0.043). So, females were more concerned in connection with phone use of their smartphones than males did.

Educational activities and old devices (Factor 13), (Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there was a statistical difference in users usage of their smartphones for educational activities and what they do with their old phones across the two sexes (mean rank = 185.05) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=160.95) of females (n=98) and males (n=237), (U=9942.000, Z=-2.072, p=0.038). So, the results indicated that females were more likely to use their smartphones for educational activities than males. Additionally, females were more likely to keep their old devices in comparing to males.

And users most use of smartphones (Factor 14), (Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there was a statistical difference in users most use of their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank=193.64) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=157.40) of females (n=98) and males (n=237), (U=9100.000, Z=-3.116, p=0.002). So, the results illustrated that females were more likely to use their smartphones mostly for social activities that includes contacting friends and entertainment than males.

On the other hand, the other findings showed that there were no significant mean differences between gender on the other factors of users usage of their smartphones (p>0.05).

Important factor elements result of non-parametric tests by age

Kruskal-Wallis Test Reporting significant results by age

The second alternative hypothesis statement is that there are significant mean differences among age groups on factors that influencing smartphone users usage of a survey done among school and university users.

Table 4-39 demonstrates the significant results of the non-parametric tests using the Kruskal-Wallis Test for the fifteen new factors that affecting smartphone users usage of a survey done among school and university users by age.

A Kruskal-Wallis test provided very strong evidence of a difference (p0.05) between the mean rank of at least one pair of the groups. Therefore, Post hoc Dunns pairwise tests were conducted for the three pairs of the groups, and it has been found that in the factors:

(Factor 3: phone ownership duration, using GPS, installing WhatsApp app, storing emails, and pictures), (Factor 4: Parental control), (Factor 5: Apps installed on smartphones), (Factor 6: Concerns in connection with phone use), (Factor 8: Safety actions), (Factor 9: Sent/received contents), (Factor 11: awareness of risks and permissions associated with app download), (Factor 13: school activities and old devices).

Factor 3: there was very strong evidence (p<0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22. And between those who are aged 17-21 and 22, 2(2) =118.687, p0.000, with a mean rank of 105.74 for age group (12-16), 202.19 for age group (17-21) and 263.90 for the third age group (22). So, the results revealed that the third age group (22) were most likely to own a smartphone for more years comparing with other two groups, used GPS feature, installed WhatsApp app, stored emails, and pictures received from known people on contact list on users smartphones.

Factor 4: there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2) =30.621, p0.001, with a mean rank of 134.85 for age group (12-16), 196.31 for age group (17-21) and 182.37 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22, with p=1.000, p 0.05. So, based on the results indicated that 12-16 were more likely to be under parental control in terms of using their smartphones as they have the lowest mean rank and as it can be the source of the difference.

Factor 5: there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 17-21 and 22 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2) =35.828, p0.001, with a mean rank of 167.52 for age group (12-16), 190.42 for age group (17-21) and 88.20 for the third age group (22). And that no difference has been found between those who are 12-16 and 17-21, with p=0.128, p0.05.

Therefore, the results indicated that Messenger app and Snapchat app were used more by the >= 22 age group as it might be the source of difference and as it has the lowest mean rank.

Factor 6: there was very strong evidence (p<0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21. And between those who are aged 17-21 and 22, 2(2) =13.595, p0.000, with a mean rank of 185.94 for age group (12-16), 146.21 for age group (17-21) and 183.73 for the third age group (22). And there was no statistically significant difference between those who are (12-16, 22), with p=1.000, p0.05.

So, the results indicated that users were concerned about their personal information, their privacy, and revealing their locations in connection with their smartphone use.17-21 age group might be more concerned than the other two groups. between the age group 12-16 and 17-21. And between those who are aged 17-21 and 22.

Factor 8: there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2 (2)=11.327, p0.001, with a mean rank of 188.18 for age group (12-16), 154.36 for age group (17-21) and 146.20 for the third age group (22), with p=1.000, p0.05.

So, the results indicated that users were taking safety actions, 12-16 age group might be the most users who took safety as it has the highest mean rank.

Factor 9: there was very strong evidence (p 0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of differences between the age groups 12-16 and 17-21, 2(2)=7.150, p 0.001, with a mean rank of 151.84 for age group (12-16), 181.01 for age group (17-21) and 177.88 for the third age group (22), and there was no statistically significant differences between those who are (17-21, 22), with p=1.000 and (12-16, 22), with p=0.386, p 0.05.So, the results indicated that users were sending/ receiving contents on their smartphones, with 17-21 users more active in sending and receiving contents through their smartphones than the older users.

Factor 11: there was no evidence of statistical differences between any of the age groups. So, based on these results it can be concluded that there were no statistically significant differences in users awareness of risks and permissions associated with installing mobile apps to their smartphones between those who are (12-16, 17-21), p=0.201, (17-21, 22), with p=0.081 and (12-16, 22), with p=0.959, p 0.05.

Although Kruskal-Wallis test showed that there was a difference between the groups as overall, but the further test (Post hoc) was conducted within the groups, and it showed that there was no evidence of a difference between any of the age groups.

Factor 13: there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of differences between the age groups 12-16 and 17-21, 2(2)=6.789, p0.001, with a mean rank of 183.42 for age group (12-16), 154.19 for age group (17-21) and 163.66 for the third age group (22). And there was no evidence of a difference between the other pairs who aged 12-16 and 22 and between those who are17-21 and 22, with p=1.000 and (12-16, 22), with p=0.746, p0.05. So, the results indicated that young users (12-16) were more likely to use their smartphones for educational activities and they were more likely to keep their old phones.

On the other hand, the other findings showed that there was no significant mean difference between age groups on the other factors of users usage of their smartphones (p>0.05).

Kruskal-Wallis test by age group

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 39: Kruskal-Wallis test by age groupsQuestion Age N Mean Rank P-value Pairwise Comparison Adj.Sig.

Factor 3 12-16 145 105.74 0.000

12-16 vs 17-21 0.000

17-21 149 202.19 12-16 vs 22 0.000

>=22 41 263.90 17-21 vs 22 0.001

Factor 4 12-16 145 134.85 0.000 12-16 vs 17-21 0.000

17-21 149 196.31 12-16 vs 22 0.017

>=22 41 182.37 17-21 vs 22 1.000

Factor 5 12-16 145 167.52 0.000 12-16 vs 17-21 0.128

17-21 149 190.42 12-16 vs 22 0.000

>=22 41 88.20 17-21 vs 22 0.000

Factor 6 12-16 145 185.94 0.001 12-16 vs 17-21 0.001

17-21 149 146.21 12-16 vs 22 1.000

>=22 41 183.73 17-21 vs 22 0.004

Factor 8 12-16 145 188.18 0.003 12-16 vs 17-21 0.000

17-21 149 154.36 12-16 vs 22 0.043

>=22 41 146.20 17-21 vs 22 1.000

Factor 9 12-16 145 151.84 0.028 12-16 vs 17-21 0.030

17-21 149 181.01 12-16 vs 22 0.386

>=22 41 177.88 17-21 vs 22 1.000

Factor 13 12-16 145 183.42 0.034 12-16 vs 17-21 0.029

17-21 149 154.19 12-16 vs 22 0.746

>=22 41 163.66 17-21 vs 22 1.000

Important factor elements result of non-parametric tests by level of education

Reporting Mann-Whitney U test by level of education

The third alternative hypothesis statement is that there is significant mean difference among academic level of education groups on factors that influencing smartphone users usage of a survey done among school and university users.

Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there were statistically significant differences in the following factors 2,3,4,6,8,9, and 13: (Factor 2) the apps that installed by smartphone users across the two academic level users, (Factor 3) the phone ownership duration, using GPS, installing WhatsApp app, storing emails, and pictures on users smartphones, (Factor 4) parental control on users usage of their smartphones, (Factor 6) the users concerns in connection with phone use of their smartphones, (Factor 8) the safety actions that users take when they use their smartphones such as (avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information and clearing browsing histories), (Factor 9) sending/receiving contents by users smartphones, (Factor 13) users usage of their smartphones for educational activities and what they do with their old phones across the two academic level users.

On the other hand, the other findings demonstrated that there were no significant mean differences between the educational level on the other factors of users usage of their smartphones (p>0.05).

Table 4-40 illustrates the significant results of the non-parametric test using Mann-Whitney U Test for the fifteen new factors that affecting smartphone users usage of a survey done among school and university users by level of education.

Mann-Whitney U Test demonstrated that there were statistically significant differences in the apps that installed by smartphone users (Factor 2) across the two academic level users (mean rank=181.41) scored higher on school users than university users (mean rank=157.77) of university users (n=190) and school users (n=145), (U= 11831.000, Z = -2.213, p =0.027).

Thus, the results revealed that school users installed more apps on their smartphones in comparison to the anther group as this might be due to the fact that younger user are more excited to explore their phones and the available apps.

(Factor 3) Mann-Whitney U Test showed that there were statistically significant differences in phone ownership duration, using GPS, installing WhatsApp app, storing emails, and pictures on users smartphones across the two academic level users (mean rank = 215.28) scored higher on university users than school users (mean rank=106.04) of university users (n =190) and school users (n=145), (U=4791.000, Z= -10.213, p=0.000).

Therefore, the results revealed that older smartphone users were most likely to own their devices in an earlier age, used GPS more, installed WhatsApp app more, stored emails, and pictures on their smartphones more than the school age users.

(Factor 4) Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there were statistically significant differences in parental control on users usage of their smartphones across the two academic level users (mean rank=193.06) scored higher on university users than school users (mean rank=135.17) of university users (n=190) and school users (n=145), (U=9014.000, Z= -5.421, p=0.000).

Parents awareness of usage

Thus, the results revealed that the university users were more likely to be restricted in using their smartphones by their parents in the past.

(Factor 6) Mann-Whitney U Test revealed that there was a statistically significant difference in the users concerns in connection with phone use of their smartphones across the two academic level users (mean rank=185.73) scored higher on school users than university users (mean rank=154.47) of university users (n=190) and school users (n=145), (U=11204.000, Z=-2.927, p=0.003). Therefore, the results indicated that younger users concerned in connection with phone use of their smartphone for their personal information, privacy and revealing their locations, and this might be duo to the fact that the younger users are more likely to be regulated by their parents.

Mann-Whitney U Test displayed that there was a statistically significant difference in the safety actions that users take when they use their smartphones such as (Avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information and clearing browsing histories) (Factor 8) across the two academic level users (mean rank=188.74) scored higher on school users than university users (mean rank=152.17) of university users (n=190) and school users (n=145), (U=10768.000, Z=-3.424, p=0.001).

Therefore, the results indicated that the school users were taking more safety actions in the use their smartphones in compared to the university users.

(Factor 9) Mann-Whitney U Test demonstrated that there was a statistically significant difference in sending/receiving contents by users smartphones across the two academic level users (mean rank=179.72) scored higher on university users than school users (mean rank=152.65) of university users (n=190) and school users (n=145), (U=11549.000, Z=-2.534, p=0.011). The results revealed that smartphone users at the university level were more likely to be active in sending/receiving contents than the school users.

(Factor 13) Mann-Whitney U Test presented that there was a statistically significant difference in users usage of their smartphones for educational activities and what they do with their old phones across the two academic level users (mean rank=184.92) scored higher on school users than university users (mean rank=155.09) of university users (n=190) and school users (n=145), (U=11322.000, Z=-2.793, p=0.005). The results revealed that smartphone users in the school level were more likely to use their devices for educational purposes.To sum up, the results of Kruskal-Wallis H and Mann-Whitney tests for the new fifteen factors revealed that those new important factors were influenced by the demographics gender, age, and level of education. Furthermore, this research might be fundamental to help schools, universities, and parents in creating and supporting a positive usage of smartphones.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 40: Significant Mann-Whitney Test results by level of educationFactor U value P-value Mean Rank

University School

Factor 2 11831.000 0 .027 157.77 181.41

Factor 3 4791.000 0.000 215.28 106.04

Factor 4 9014.000 0.000 193.06 135.17

Factor 6 11204.000 0.003 154.47 185.73

Factor 8 10768.000 0.001 152.17 188.74

Factor 9 11549.000 0.011 179.72 152.65

Factor 13 11322.000 0.005 155.09 184.92

Summary This chapter looked at the initial research results of the descriptive statistical analysis of the data collected through the research survey based on some categories (demographics, devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour) by demographics (age, gender, and level of education). This chapter started with analysing of the demographics. And the data normality test was concluded to check if the date is normally distributed or not, using Skewness and Kurtosis calculations. The data were not normally distributed, so non-parametric tests were appropriate to be used in this study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Corder</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>117</RecNum><DisplayText>(Corder &amp; Foreman, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>117</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">117</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Corder, Gregory W</author><author>Foreman, Dale I</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Nonparametric statistics for nonstatisticians</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc.</publisher><isbn>047045461X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Corder & Foreman, 2011).

Results of both Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests of the collected data through the research survey based on some categories (devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour) by demographics were presented as well. Furthermore, factor analysis has been performed to gain the most important factors.

This survey showed that there was a gender split in mobile-phone OS usage among the age groups surveyed, while this has been reported before for adults PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Lcml0aGlrYTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTM8L1llYXI+

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Krithika & Vasantha, 2013; Lee et al., 2014; Van Deursen et al., 2015) this has not, to our knowledge, been reported for school and university age students.

Users awareness

There were significant gender, age, and level of education differences in the users awareness of taking steps to keep themselves safe from online threats such as bullying, and unwanted messages; females, younger users, and school-aged students were more inclined to take steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying and unwanted messages.

And there were significant gender, age, and level of education differences in whether their parents check their smartphones across the two genders, age groups, and education levels.

Females, younger generations, and school-level students were monitored by their parents as they might be more vulnerable to some smartphone usage risks because they know a lot about what they do on their smartphones therefore they should be monitored and controlled more by their parents.

Similar percentages of both genders reported that they mind if their parents check their phone without their consent. Older generations and university students reported the same.

Females, older users, and school students were more likely to turn it off. Older might be more careful with using GPS on their smartphones than younger users.

Older generations and university-level students were likely to clear their browsing histories less than the older generations.

Users reported that they were aware of the risks that can be associated with the installation process of the mobile apps on their smartphones, Users who are aged 17 or older were likely to be more aware than younger users and reported that they are aware of permissions that the mobile apps ask for when installing some apps to their smartphones.

Most of the participants had a good understanding of the threats that they might expose to while they are using their smartphones.However, showed that age, gender, and level of education are related to risky behaviour.

Users experience

No significant gender differences were found in the users experiences. However, there were age differences in the experience of years of owning smartphones. Older users have owned their first smartphone for a longer time and were receiving pictures from people in their contact lists more than the younger generations. Users who are aged (17-21) are inclined to receive/ send messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally, more than users who are aged less than 17 years old. So, older users were more likely to receive/ send messages or photos from/to strangers than others.

Also, there was a significant difference in the users experience among educational levels in the duration of owning a smartphone, in receiving any pictures from people in contacts on their smartphones. University users were more likely to receive pictures from people in contact on their smartphones. Also, there was a significant difference in users experience of receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones across academic-level groups.

Users behaviour

Users use their smartphones to access and store a wide variety of services and information. It was found that there were significant gender differences in storing photos of users, their friends, and families. Females are interested more in storing photos of themselves, friends, and families whereas males showed more interest in storing only text messages and emails. In addition, university-level users were more likely to store photos of their families and emails and use their smartphones for educational purposes.

Moreover, age influenced the users behaviour in storing text messages and emails. Younger generations were more likely to store text messages than older users who were more inclined to store emails and use their smartphones for educational purposes.

Also, the present study indicated that the most used apps are Snapchat, Messenger, Skype, and WhatsApp. While, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Omegle, Azar, and Chatroulette are the less-used apps.

Major findings

Gender influences users the most use of smartphones. Whereas gender and level of education influenced apps installed on smartphones (Skout, 6rounds, Imo, Omegle Apps).

Age groups and levels of education influenced safety actions (Avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information, clearing browsing history), and sending and /or receiving content. While the age group influenced app installation on smartphones (Messenger, and Snapchat). Demographic factors did not influence data stored on smartphones, phone change and the ooVoo app, awareness of risks and permissions, installing Viber, Skype, and text messages, or on online security.

This study revealed that fifteen new important factors influence smartphone users security awareness as follows:

1) Data stored on smartphones, 2) Apps installed on smartphones, 3) Phone duration, GPS, WhatsApp, emails, and pictures, 4) parental control, 5) Apps installed on smartphones, 6) concerns about security and privacy-related aspects 7) Phone change and ooVoo app, 8) Safety actions, 9) Sent/received contents, 10) Viber, Skype and text messages, 11) Awareness of risks and permissions associated with app download, 12) Phone relationships, 13) School activities and old devices 14) Most use of smartphones, 15) Online security and privacy (security behaviour) see Table 6-1.

This section discussed the findings of the quantitative study. Smartphone users lack security awareness in the knowledge of risk-related factors when accessing the internet, storing data, misplacing smartphones, losing a phone, or having it stolen and selling them.

With risky behaviour when sharing personal data with strangers and ignoring licensing agreements, security messages, not adopting security software, and not minding GPS on.

However, they showed good awareness when they cleared browsing histories, used anti-virus and firewall software, and when avoid an app rather than sharing their personal information, and when considered the criteria before downloading some apps.

Second study on School pupils and University studentsAn updated study on school pupils and university students was conducted in order to investigated the changes that might be happened since 2015 and to compare the two period results. 75 respondents were gathered after cleaning the data. 51 responses from the school were collected and 24 responses were gathered from the university.Descriptive AnalysisThis section investigates the results that were produced by the second survey. While also taking into consideration what were the positive outcomes and what could have been improved upon. So, a breakdown of the survey results will be covered.ReliabilitySPSS was used to calculate Cronbachs alpha in this study. The result of the reliability analysis revealed that the Cronbachs alpha value is , signifying good reliability, therefore, the instrument employed in this study had a high-reliability value as there was internal consistency of the scales. Normality Test In order to decide whether the data had been drawn from a normally distributed population, a normality test has to be conducted ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Field</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>270</RecNum><DisplayText>(Field, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>270</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1653564814">270</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Field, Andy</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Discovering statistics using SPSS (3. bask)</title><secondary-title>NY: Sage Publications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>NY: Sage Publications</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Field, 2009). The results of this Shapiro-Wilk test showed that the data were not normally distributed (see Appendix 8). Data were not normally distributed so, non-parametric tests were appropriate to be used in this study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Corder</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>117</RecNum><DisplayText>(Corder &amp; Foreman, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>117</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">117</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Corder, Gregory W</author><author>Foreman, Dale I</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Nonparametric statistics for nonstatisticians</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc.</publisher><isbn>047045461X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Corder & Foreman, 2011).Demographic Characteristics of the Sample This study gathered the demographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, gender, and education level. The overall number of smartphone users in this survey was 75. There were 32 females (42.7%) and 43 males (57.3%). The distribution of age groups is as follows: aged 12-16 (.%); aged 17-21, (.%); and aged 22, (%). In terms of level of educational level, 57.5% of the users (199 users) were university students, and approximately just less than half of the users were school pupils, (147 users, and 42.5%) as shown in Table 4-1: Participants profile.Table STYLEREF 1 s 4 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 1: Participants profileDemographic informationFrequencyValid Percent (%)Age12-1614742.5 %17-2115745.4 %224212.1%GenderMale4357.3 %Female3242.7 %Level of educationUniversity%School%Total populationTotalN= 346100.0 %The overall number of smartphone users in this survey was 346. There are three different age groups in this sample, the first group is (12-16) years old, the second group is (17-21) years old, and the third one is for students whom their age is (22). There are 147 pupils who aged (12-16), making about 42.5% of the whole sample. There are 157 pupils who aged (17- 21), making about 45.4% of the whole sample population (157/ 346*100). Only 42 of the survey respondents were aged or greater than 22, making only 12.1% of the whole sample (147/ 346). The lowest percentage of population 12.1% belongs to the age group were aged or greater than 22 years. In terms of gender, the survey population consists of 244 males, 70.5% of the whole sample, and 102 females, approximately 29.5% of the overall survey respondents. Regarding the academic level of the pupils, the survey population consists of 199 university students, making up 57.5%. And 147 school pupils, approximately 42.5% of the overall survey respondents. Based on these categories, the questions were grouped together (devices, knowledge, experience, and behaviour). And therefore, the results presented in the same trends. The gender split for school and university students.Chapter 5: Qualitative ResultsIntroductionThis chapter represents the results of the second method in the current research, which was qualitative in approach, using interviews with 18 students from University of Strathclyde. It presents the analysis of interviews which were in the form of the face-to-face semi-structured, based on the analysis of the feedback gathered during the interviews. This interview schedule is designed to examine the smartphones use and attitudes towards smartphone usage and to investigate the users behaviour that expose them to online risks.

Interview AnalysisAccording to Saunders et al., (2012), as the studys nature, the topic, and the research questions all play a role in determining which qualitative analysis method to use, there is no set of guidelines to follow while analysing qualitative data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Saunders</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>102</RecNum><DisplayText>(Saunders et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>102</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">102</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Saunders, MNK</author><author>Lewis, Philiph</author><author>Thornhill, Adrian</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Research methods for business students (6th ended.) Harlow</title><secondary-title>England: Pearson Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>England: Pearson Education</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Saunders et al., 2012). Conventional content analysis was used for analysing the qualitative data as the codes are defined during the data analysis to get the themes. And as this study does not used theory, so, this type is the most appropriate one to be used in this research.

Demographic Attributes

Three questions were asked to identify the demographical breakdown of the participants that have took part in the interview to determine their profiles. The copy of the interview questions is provided in Appendix (4). The demographical questions were about age, gender, and educational level of the participants. Demographic characteristics are shown in Table 5-1 as well as the phone type.

Age and gender

There were eight females and ten males. The age of participants ranged between 20 and 35.

Level of education

In terms of education level, all the participants in this study have PG education level, either Ph.D. or MSc level, however, most of the participants were at the Ph.D. level and only one was an MSc student.

Smartphone usage ownership of phones and general usage of phones

Smartphone Usage

From the findings, all participants stated that they have a smartphone. Most of male participants owned Android devices. Most of females owned iPhones and only few have got Android, and the following are some examples:

Yes, it is an Android. P1, Male. Yes, I have iPhone 5, IOS. P17, Female.

Table STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 1: Characteristics of participantsParticipants Gender Phone type Age Level of Education

P1 M Android 23 PhD student

P2 M Android 35 PhD student

P3 M Android 23 PhD student

P4 F Apple iPhone 32 PhD student

P5 M Android 22 PhD student

P6 M Android 31 PhD student

P7 M Android 32 PhD student

P8 M Android 25 PhD student

P9 M Android 35 PhD student

P10 F Apple iPhone 26 PhD student

P11 F Android 24 PhD student

P12 M Android 23 PhD student

P13 F Apple iPhone 27 PhD student

P14 M Android 25 PhD student

P15 F Apple iPhone 22 PhD student

P16 F Apple iPhone 33 PhD student

P17 F Apple iPhone 31 PhD student

P18 F Android 32 MSC

Main reasons of buying smartphones

Smartphones and their apps are found to be good for communication in the users daily and academic lives. These devices help users to stay in contact with their families, friends, and with their classmates for educational purposes. Smartphones are useful in terms of communication between users through mobile apps. For example, the use of e-mails allows them to exchange information, and keep in touch with others. Also, smartphones help users to attend lectures, and read notes and slides.

Participants provided different reasons for buying smartphones including accessing the Internet and SM platforms, playing games, watching videos, listening to music, checking e-mails, and taking photos. In addition, reading the news and sending text messages as well as the original purpose of making phone voice calls. In general, they are using their devices for communication, entertainment, and learning purposes as will be detailed below.

Phone usage and Internet access

Phone usage and Internet access was one reason for having a smartphone indicated by most of the participants as confirmed by the following participants response:

I can always get Internet access on the go P16, Female.

All the participants in this study indicated that they access the Internet via their smartphones for different reasons. These include accessing their emails, using different apps, browsing the web and communicating with families and friends through different SM accounts for instance, Instagram, Snapchat, WhatsApp, and Twitter. Also, watching YouTube, listening to music, news on BBC and reading pdf files, checking what academics do up to date, shopping and checking maps. The following examples show that:

It is mostly checking my emails, checking some notifications on social media or communicating with friends. Also, what other academics been up to. P6, Male.

I sometimes shop online. P10, Female.

One purpose that motivated the participants to have a smartphone was that to communicate with their families and friends by using the available apps and to stay in touch with others and to be accessible. And use it as a basic phone and through SM accounts.

I want to access the Internet because I am an international student. So, I need to contact my family back home, also to use other social media programs such as Facebook, Viber and so on. P16, Female.

In addition, some of the participants use their smartphones for travel such as using maps and check train times. The following examples of the answers illustrate this.

I used mostly as a phone, and then Internet capabilities I guess for the convenience mostly things like google maps, and be able to use things like WhatsApp, and I ask for social media, but mostly because I need a phone, so to communicate with others, mainly to make voice calls and text messages. P8, Male.

Entertainment

Traditional mobile phones were only used for making calls and sending texts until the smartphone was emerged. Since that time, smartphones have developed into a device with advanced features to run tasks, such as download apps, stream music, watch videos, transfer money, and play games as demonstrated by the following response:

I bought it purely just to stay in touch with people to be a bit more accessible and also I use it for music and the Internet. P3, Male.

Factors that influence participants when buy their smartphone

This study found some factors that influence smartphone buying decisions for instance: price/ cost, product features, convenience, popularity of the brand, durability, reviews, and personal needs. Also, some participants mentioned other factors such as ease of use/ user friendly, decent camera: picture/ video quality, long lasting battery, functionalities, maintenance, internal storge, speed of OS, screen size, phone colour, how fast and robust, Internet connection, RAM, familiarity, and Aesthetic/ look. Answers ranged from the brand name, the price, the quality, screen size, camera quality, reviews.

Price/ Cost

This factor is considered by most of the participants to be one of the significant factors that they took into their considerations when buying their smartphones. The cost factor includes all the price-related factors that participants weigh up when buying a smartphone. Most of them revealed that they are looking for a reasonable and not too expensive phones. The following participant illustrate this point:

The first thing is the price should be reasonable and not very expensive. You know as a student we do not have lots of money, so we have limited budget. Also, I need one that is easy to use and I can get Internet access on the go always. And then the quality and the size of the storage in the mobile phone also is an important factor, it must be a reasonable size. P16, Female.

Convenience

Smartphone screen sizes have been continually rising, with most models currently are larger than before. This makes it easier and more convenience to use, for example, it is started to be access, share, and edit photos on a smartphone. Furthermore, the phones touchscreen makes it simple to zoom in or rotate images for a better look. In addition, smartphones may be used to communicate with families and friends in a simple and convenient manner. There has never been an easy way to communicate with people in various areas worldwide via instant messaging, voice calls, video calls and at any other time.

Moreover, entertainment and getting better quality phone were also revealed by some of the participants interviewed in this study. For example, convenience, and better camera. The following two participants illustrated that:

I specifically wanted to be able to connect with the Internet. And, I was just wanting a better camera, because I like to take a lot of pictures. P18, Female.

Well, I bought it because it is very convenient. Well, it does a lot of things for you personally, and it is quite affordable, and it makes life easy if you ask me, the communication aspect of it helps you to stay in touch. I think that is why lots of people go for smartphones because it is user-friendly. It helps you not to be too lonely, because there is always something you find on the Internet, and you always find people to talk to on a lot of apps and on video calls. I think a smartphone is everybodys baby now. P13, Female.

Features

It is an important factor and a motivating force that pushes the participants when making their decision of a new smartphone purchase. The findings revealed that the importance of new technology is important to smartphone users when buying their smartphones. Features such as good battery, memory, high quality camera, fast processor, and a good display were found to be good features of the smartphone they are looking for.

Nowadays with all the people using smartphones, it is easier to connect to the Internet. We can use it to read a PDF file, or also to contact others using social media. It is easier to use than a laptop of a computer. Also at the same time, it has a lot of features. P2, Male.

Popularity of the Brand

It is the variable that is mentioned by most of the participants. The results show that the brand popularity could play major part while purchasing a smartphone. The findings showed that there are two dominant smartphone platforms, which are Android and Apple iPhone. Most of the participants revealed that they owned Android devices, whereas some of them owned apple iPhones. Most of the answers to this question was Yes as they consider brand name as an important factor. However, only few participants did not consider that. Several reasons were reported by the participants to justify their answers. For example,

Yes, usually I would go for a big brand who have the most share of the market. So, these days I think it is iPhone or Android. Mainly because I think they have better functionality of their phones, better maintenance over the long-term usage. My criteria for picking the phone, I think mainly it was ease of use. So, I tried Android once and I found it difficult to use. iPhones are easier for usage, and you learn very quickly how to use it. And the maintenance. I think these are the two main criteria. P4, Female.

On contrast, the followings are the examples of the answers that have been reported by those who did not consider the brand name as a major factor when they brought their smartphones.

Not as such, I prefer Android because I do not like the user interface of an iPhone as much, but I do not care so much. P7, Male.

Durability

Durability facility is weighed up when participants make their decision to buy their smartphones. It is another most important factor that the participants have mentioned that they consider while they buy their smartphones.

Generally, brand names are associated with quality, how long the durability of the product and stuff like that, so a brand name is important, but it is not the only factor, to me. One big factor I considered was price, but also durability and speed of the operating system. And camera was not as important to me. I do not use my camera as much, but most smartphones have very good cameras these days so. And yeah, it was not the biggest spec I was looking for, but since all phones these days have generally good cameras, I just chose the other factors more. Cost and look a little bit and size, I do not like phones that are too big, because I cannot reach over the screen. I did not want one that was too big, and I really wanted one that had gorilla glass, because I drop my phone a lot. P11, Female.

Reviews

Reviews are important factor when deciding to buy a phone. The following example of response confirms that.

Reviews are probably the biggest factor I consider apart from price. P11, Female.

Personal needs

In addition to the previous factors that influence smartphone users decision when buying a smartphone, personal needs is another factor which is illustrated by the participant who reported that they have lost their phone.

I bought it because I lost my old one, but I do need a sort of minimum, a level of smartness for my phone. So that, it is more of a sort of computer away from my computer. P9, Male.

Figure 5-1 presents the major factors that influence participants when they buy their smartphone in this study.

Figure STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 1: Most dominant factors that influence participants when they buy their smartphoneTo summarise this point, the objectives of this question were to discover the factors that impact users smartphone purchase decisions. The responses of the participants reveal that several factors influence smartphone purchase decisions. The followings are important factors that influence smartphone purchases: the smartphones usefulness. Most users develop brand loyalty, which influences purchase decisions. The cost of the phone is another factor that has been revealed by the participants that affect their buying purchases. Smartphone features also play an important role such as screen size, camera quality, reviews, functionalities, quality, Internal storge, speed of OS, and durability.

Period that users had their first phone, how many times they have changed their phone and why they have changed them

Participants have revealed that different length of number of years they had/did their first phones, and how many times they change their phones. Also, they have given different reasons for changing their phones as demonstrated by the following answers.

I would say maybe 5 years. P7, Male.

Other participants revealed that they do not change their phones much unless they broke.

I tend to just use a phone until it cannot be used anymore. Just when the old one is broken, I will buy a new one. P14, Male.

Old phone: when the participants asked about what they do with their phones, they have given different reasons for their preferences. Such as keep it, sell it, give it away and recycle it.

Keep it: most participants in this study found to keep their old phones either for a backup in case they lost their current smartphones or have them broken, others chose to keep it for memory, or they just do not want to disclose their information stored on their phones.

Give it away: if their old phones still have some life in it but they wont use it, they considered donating it to a charity or to one of their family members.

Sell it: few of the participants stated that they have sold their older phones as they do not no longer using but not one that is obsolete.

Recycle it: few of the participants chosen to dispose of it to be recycled.

Keep it

The participants have demonstrated different reasons for their preferences. Some of the participants reported that they keep their smartphones for different reasons such as for security and privacy, for memory as illustrated by next participant response.

I just kept it to myself. I think for security reasons, because I store a lot of things on my phone like my contact list, my photos. Especially my photos, because for a special reason I do not want to share my photos with others. I did not sell it. P4, Female.

And for memory:

I kept it for a long time, and I kept it as a memory really. But now smartphones, there are so much variety and they're almost disposable. So now I have not kept the other ones, I have just sold them. P11, Female.

Recycle it

Destroy it. I just do not like the idea someone has the same handset just in case something was on it. P15, Female.

Whereas one of the participants stated that they should recycle their phones, but they did not. They just keep it. The following participant confirmed that.

I think it is still lying in a drawer somewhere. Ideally, I guess I should recycle it but it has not happened. P7, Male.

Sell it

Some of the participants preferred to sell their smartphones on the Internet as demonstrated by these responses:

I usually sold them online. I did that quite a few times and other times, I have got a younger sister, so I would just give her my old phone when I got my new phone. P10, Female.

On contrast, some of the participants revealed that they do not want to sell their old phones. They preferred to keep them instead as they have concerns about the confidentiality of their personal data stored on their smartphones. The following participants confirm that:

I always keep them, I do not sell them or give them to anybody else because I am worried about the confidentiality of my data and my photos and, you know that are stored in my old phone. P16, Female.

Other reasons that participants preferred to keep it as a back-up or to give them to a family member to use but did not mention any reasons for security or privacy.

I kept it I have it with me. I kept it as a back-up. I think I left it back home in case one of my other family members might need it at some point. P12, Male.

Whether users phone usage increase as they grow older and how it has changed

Most of the participants stated that their usage has changed for different reasons. Such as checking the news, surfing the Internet, checking SM, seeking information, reading papers and PDF files, using it as a TV, using more mobile apps on it, listening for music, and playing games, exchanging, and buying with cryptocurrency, Bitcoins, using Amazon app, Prime Video, checking the calendar, and using the calculator. Smartphone apps have significantly aided in seeking for information, staying up-to-date with current changes in the subject. Using smartphones with apps to check emails and SM is considerably more convenient. The majority of those surveyed confirm these points.

Yes. I think I have more and more apps on it. And I think it is really related to what I do online, and what I used to do on my computer I also do it on my phone now. So, browsing, social networking. And even communicating with Skype. P1, Male.

Yeah, I think yes. I think I am using my phone today for everything. I used to watch TV series or movies. But today, I do not. So, my phone becomes my TV. I am using it for longer hours than before. And maybe because of the technology, because today you do a lot of stuff using your phone. Before, I just used my phone for calling somebody or sending a text message. P4, Female.

Yes. Obviously, I still use the same basic games, social media, but even if I am on the bus or travel, I can still use it to Google anything. I always used it for searching if I want to know anything and I am not in my office. P15, Female.

On contrast few participants revealed that their smartphone usage is much less than before. For example, the following participant confirm this point.

I think it probably would decrease as I grow older. I think it is increased from what it used to be like ten years ago to what it is now. Maybe life is becoming more dependent on the phone. At least every day you would spend, say, five hours on the phone doing one thing or the other. But I think I want to make it a kind of conscious life change. I believe it increases because there are more apps, there are more things you can do with your phone. So, people tend to be dependent on it. Well, me, just a personal decision. I want to be able to manage my phone instead of my phone managing my time. P13, Female.

No, I think I use my phone a lot less than I did maybe 5 years ago. I think it is a good thing because when you are a teenager especially it is all about your social life. P10, Female.

Whereas one participant stated that their phone usage stayed the same as before and has not changed as they grow older.

I think mine stayed about the same. I always use my phone quite a lot though mainly, because I use it for music, so I always have my phone with me. P3, Male.

Attitudes toward smartphone loss (stolen or lost phone)

Many participants in the current study indicated concerns about losing their smartphones or having them stolen. It is likely that increased concern over phone loss or theft makes smartphone users more cautious to store sensitive data on their smartphones or to submit sensitive data into the apps they are using on their smartphones. Furthermore, their concerns may be linked to whether they use a PIN or a key pattern to lock their smartphones. Differences in user authentication may also have an impact on users perceptions of security on their smartphones. It is possible, for example, that people may connect typing a password on their smartphones with a sense of safety. If users are used to typing a password to log into a website before entering sensitive information, they may assume that their data is safe, whereas if they do not need to enter a password when using smartphone apps, they may be less confident that the information they enter will be safe.

This study has investigated the users awareness of the effects of smartphone loss and their opinions about the threats that users may be encountered if their smartphones are lost or stolen and accessed by unauthorized people. Most participants indicated that they did not lose their phones or have them stolen. Whereas some of the participants stated that they had experienced smartphone loss incidents in the past. Different experiences have been indicated by them as demonstrated by the following participants:

Yes, I did, terrible. I was really annoyed. I must have been about 17 and I'd went out cycling and it fell out of my pocket, and I think I spent hours going back and forward trying to figure out where I'd dropped it because, I mean there was nothing too much on the phone, like. phone wasn't that advanced at that point, it wasn't a smartphone. But I had pictures on it, my contacts were on it, all my music was on it. So, yea. I was really upset. You know you have a kind of personal attachment to your phone, do not you?. P10, Female.

It was quite annoying because it was a bit like losing your wallet, it is not an immediate danger, but it is sort of a concern about whats on the phone but also, it is the inconvenience of not having it. P9, Male.

None of the users reported that they were unaware of the consequences that may happen if their private information accessed by unauthorized persons. One participant who lost her phone indicated that she was concerned about the loss of her contact list rather than the phone itself or its contents and she said that she did not have a PIN number for it.

Yes, once. It was a very old model, so I was not bothered about losing the phone, but I was very upset that I lost my contact list. And it was quite a while ago. So, it was quite difficult. There were no cloud services available, it was not a smartphone. There was no Internet connection. So, nothing was backed up. And I felt a little bit upset because I had a lot of text messages in there as well. So, if somebody did get hold of it, I do not think I had a PIN number, they would be able to read through all my conversations. Which is OK but it is a little bit, you know, it feels a bit violating for your privacy. P18, Female.

The users were asked about what the first action is that they do when lost their phones. Several different insights were gained from the response. For example, contacting the network provider to cancel the phone contract.

I disconnected the phone from my online accounts. I phoned the bus company because I had lost a phone before and they would find it, so, this time they did not and I informed the network that I would lost it P9, Male.

I phoned up O2 at the time who was the network provider, to cancel the contract so that nobody would be able to make calls on it. P18, Female.

Misplacing phones

Some of the participants revealed that they have misplaced their smartphones before. The following participant raised this issue:

Yeah, I am not allowed to take your phones into the prison, but I would normally bring my phone with me and leave it in the car. But one day, I thought I'd lost it, because I came into the car and it was gone, because I normally put it in the glove box. and for about a week I thought it was missing I reported to the police and everything because I thought, oh somebody's got into my car and taken it and it was right, right under the drivers seat all that time. So, I had a real big panic about that, especially because I worked somewhere that was really like sensitive, so I was like oh god, what if somebody has found my phone, is going to use it against me and all that, but luckily, I found it in the end but yea, because there's a lot of stress when you lose your phone. P10, Female.

General use, mass media & Internet usage of smartphone

Data privacy and data stored on smartphones.

Smartphones contain and store a lot of personal information, making them a target for a lot of criminal attacks. The user can utilise control mechanisms (such as the permission mechanisms) to help preserve his or her data privacy. Furthermore, accounts passwords, screen locking, and encryption are some of the techniques a user can secure and protect data on their smartphone PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BbmRyb3VsaWRha2lzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwv

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Mylonas et al., 2013; Park et al., 2013).

Different opinions were gathered from the participants answers about which data should be stored on a mobile phone and which should not be stored on them. Most of the participants store variety of things on their smartphones. For example, they store photos, videos, music, emails, pdf files/ articles, pictures of their selves, families and friends from SM accounts, notes, text messages, apps, cinema codes, airline tickets/boarding pass, bank details and contact list on their smartphones. The followings are examples of what participants have revealed:

It is a bit off everything. A lot of pdf files because a lot of pdfs are required to go into the cinema for instance, like you know you have documents and a code to show. So, and even tickets, like buss tickets, airline tickets and things like that. And apart from that, I use all my device apps. Pictures not really pictures I take, but pictures I receive on different kind of social networks, Snapchat, and Facebook. P1, Male.

I store photos and articles related to my study, pdf files. I store sometimes confidential data like scanned confidential documents like passports. Also boarding passes for travel and, I store almost everything that can be stored and that means when I am on the go and not at home. P16, Female.

Some of the participants indicated that data should not be stored on the smartphones such as sensitive data, banking details, passport photos and passwords, usernames, and any confidential data as they believe that this will be dangerous for them and for their data if someone get unauthorised access to their phones.

I think private and confidential data such as passports and confidential documents should not be stored on the phone but because we usually need them for travel and for you know our paperwork and anywhere in the university. So, we have to do that but I am not really happy with storing data, but I am always worried about this point, if I lose my phone so anyone can get access to my confidential data and information so I prefer not to store that. But I say that but I am not doing it because I always need them, so I always try to delete them if I do not need them. You need them but I prefer not to store them I am always worried about this point. P16, Female.

I do not agree with people that save their card details online on their phones or passwords for websites. Like I make sure I clear everything like that because I just think it is; if you drop your phone and someone manages to get into it and all your card information for your bank is stored on it, all your passwords are stored on it, they could take over your life. So, I think it is fine to have photographs because I know some people take kind of, risky photographs on their phones. I do not think people should do that like, it is far too dangerous if someone gets your phone. Generally everything is ok, but I would not store passwords or banking data or anything too sensitive on it. P10, Female.

Additionally, different reasons were given for not storing sensitive and banking details on the smartphones. They indicated that there will be risks if someone get their phones, their life, their reputation will be at risk as well. The following participant demonstrated these points in the examples:

But I would not store passwords or banking data or anything too sensitive on it, just the risk, you know? Even though they are password protected and what not, people can still get into your phone. It is easy to hack in and it is.. you have so much of your life stored on your phone now, people take it for granted that if you lose that or if someone gets into that, that is. I mean that is your whole, your reputation at risk as well. P10, Female.

I do not like the idea if someone got my phone, they could get into it and find it, I do not like the idea if someone got it, maybe they will not be able to use it, but to see it, to steal it, also people can steal your identity just by knowing, your name, your number, and your bank details. And if they know your bank details, even if they cannot switch anything, they can still see your bank details and become you. P15, Female.

Another reason why sensitive data should not be stored on smartphones were given by other participants as they were concerned about their security and their privacy and that is smartphone security is low as confirmed by the following participant:

I never enter my bank account from my mobile. I am just concerned about my security, my privacy because I am using a lot of social media, so I do not know how much my account is secure, I do not trust my mobile phone. P17, Female.

Similarly, some of the participants revealed that they probably should not have anything sensitive on their smartphones as they concerned about their phones if they got lost. The following participant confirmed this issue:

Id probably say you shouldnt have saved information that is sensitive. It is easy to lose a phone, and so you maybe shouldnt have your social media accounts log in details saved and things like that. Nothing sensitive. P14, Male.

One participant on the contrast, indicated that they can store everything on their smartphones, and they do not care about storing everything even credit card, debit card credentials. The following participant response confirms that:

I think all data that can be saved on a computer or laptop should be saved in a mobile phone. Why not? You can lose your laptop just as easily as your mobile, to be honest. If you are reckless with your laptop, you are going to lose it, right? I have it there right now in the office, and someone leaves, and someone decides to go there and take it and I have not locked it, and someone takes it. I think all types of data could be there. Yeah, all my apps have my credit card, my debit card stored credentials sored on my apps. I even do banking from my mobile. I never log on to online banking with my laptop. P12, Male.

Smartphone Security

Importance of smartphone security

Smartphone security is the protection of smartphone devices from risks related with Internet use and it has become increasingly more important. The concern now is that related to the security of private and business information that is kept and stored on smartphones. Smartphone users and businesses use their devices to communicate with others and to manage their work and their personal life.

The findings found that most of the participants consider their smartphone security is important, and they have given several different reasons for that. While only one stated that he does not consider it as important.

I would not say so, no. I mean, not more than anything else, I think because, I have my phone on me, so I guess I have quite good control over it, and I do not worry about anything happening to it. P7, Male.

Those who considered smartphone security important have revealed different reasons for that such as using the smartphone to store sensitive information can be very dangerous if it used by someone else, or if they get access to bank account details, they will steal a lot of sensitive data stored on it and this is a serious risk. The following three participants illustrated that.

Because it could be very dangerous for your life, for example, if somebody took your identity on Snapchat or on Instagram. It would be bad for your reputation. Also from another angle, for example, financial problems, they could reach sensitive information about your bank account. So, I think it should be kept secure. P4, Female.

Yea I think it is very important because it is easy like to compromise your data especially that you know there are apps right now that are supposed to make your life easier for instance you know like not even contactless cards but even like you can pay with your smartphone, so this is equivalent of money. P6, Man.

With the advances in smartphones and use of apps these days, most people use Internet banking apps on their smartphones, and as most banking apps do not store users bank details directly on their phones, but instead accessing it from secured and protected data centres. Other participants considered smartphone security important as it holds sensitive data such as bank details and will be at high risk if their account is compromised through their smartphones.

Because it is a portal that you use to, sort of things like your bank account, or university accounts or stuff, so, like every hop can be a risk, so it is more hops if that makes sense, and I think smartphones tend to revolve around convenience rather than security, so I think theres maybe some technical challenges in getting to be secure as say a PC. P9, Male.

Yes, I think because of the, some of the things I have said before about bank details, obviously theres high risk of people getting a hold of your bank details and I images as well are something that should always be confidential, not only smartphones but all sorts of images on laptop and all that. P11, Female.

My personal data is stored on my phone, so I most protect it. P12, Male.

Afraid of information loss, and security level needs to be applied to not have this information compromised. P13, Female.

Another participant revealed that they have a lack of awareness of how to keep themselves and their phones secure. This could be due to their lack of experience in the use of security software for this purpose, as revealed by the following two participants.

I think it is an important point, but I do not know how to apply it because I am not, I do not have a lot of information how to keep myself secure. P16, Female.

Smartphone security is important because you do use it for a lot of sensitive information, which can be used by somebody if they wanted to either use your information in a fraudulent way, or just access your bank account. It can be quite dangerous. I think they can steal a lot of sensitive information. Some people might be concerned about certain pictures, but I think the more serious information is your bank information and stuff, not your text messages or other messages. P18, Female.

On the contrary, the findings revealed that some of the participants do not trust the smartphones, so they only use it for communicating through SM but do not use it for banking accounts or anything sensitive. This shows a lack of awareness as banking apps are developed securely. The following participant exemplify this point.

I never trust any mobile phone, because I use it with social media, so, I do not use to check my bank account, or something for security, so, one of the most important things for me the security and the privacy. P17, Female.

Smartphone Security Protection Mechanisms

Interviewees were asked some questions related to smartphone security mechanisms to determine what security mechanisms that they employ on their smartphone to protect themselves and their phones. Setting up a screen lock can help secure someones smartphone by using either of the locking mechanisms such as with a PIN, pattern, or password.

The results show that most of the participants use smartphone security mechanisms, such as passwords, lock screen, pattern lock, fingerprint lock patterns, encryption, but other features such as remote device locator or remote data wipe, multifactor authentication scheme have not mentioned by any of the participants.

I happen to have a fingerprint reader that I log in and I think that is it. P7, Male.

Yes, password, lock or encryption. P11, Female.

I just generate things where you to draw a pattern you know like to unlock the screen but other than that well I try, well, I do not have like auto-complete passwords and stuff like that because I realise like anyone can you know just as soon as they logged in that they can just access anything. So, I do not store my passwords, memory, or anything like that. P6, Male.

During the interviews analysis, it was observed that some of the participants can get access to the apps with no need to use the phones password. Additionally, few participants revealed that they stored the password of their emails on their smartphones, then the email apps can be reached whenever need. And another interesting finding which related to banking apps, is that most of the participants who access their bank accounts through their smartphones insert their credentials every time they use the banking app.

Some participants stated that they do not lock the phone, but they use passcodes and passwords for the apps.

Apps require multiple passwords. P12, Male.

Aside from that one which is from Apple which is the password. It is the password and passcode. Passcode for some of the apps on the phone that you must put a passcode in to assess. P13, Female.

While others indicated that they use different protection mechanisms to protect themselves and their devices.

It is tracked and, via google I can unlock I can throw the phone off my account so I can sort of remove that risk. The SD card is encrypted. Theres not really anything on it that I would mind, that is a problem, but the feature is there so I use it. And it is got the networks security app, so like the network provider. I am not sure how secure that is in terms of features, but it is there. And I opt into the google security options so that is about as secure as I can make it without, low effort. P9, Man.

On contrast, one of the participants believe that device protection is unnecessary, and they do not use any mechanism on their smartphone which put themselves at risk or make themselves vulnerable users.

No, to be honest, I do not use anything. I just leave it. P17, Female.

Awareness of existence of malicious software for smartphone (viruses, worms, Trojan horses, etc) and experience of any online threat (any types of malwares)

According to the participants responses in the present study, most of them are aware of the existence of malicious software for smartphone, except only one who said that he is only aware of the existence of such software for computers not for the smartphones.

Most of the participants revealed that they have not encountered any experience with online threat or any types of malwares on their smartphones. On contrast, few of the participants informed that they have experienced online threat or any types of malwares on their smartphones. The following participant confirmed this point:

Yes, sometimes when I have visited an inauthentic website, and then they link you to another website and say congratulations, you have won something. So, I try to completely shut the website before they attack my phone. P4, Female.

However, another participant reported that he is not aware of the existence of smartphone malicious software, he is only aware of the existence of them for computers not for the smartphones. This lack of awareness of the existence of smartphone malicious software might expose the smartphone users to more online risks and threats and make them more vulnerable as confirmed by the following participant:

It is something that I associate much more with computers rather than phones. I know about viruses and Trojans and the kind of malware, encryption malware. It is something that I know happens with computers, but I am not so aware of it something that phones are susceptible to. P14, Male.

Other participants indicated that they do not know whether they have experienced any malware:

Yes, I am aware of them, but I have never been affected by them unless I do not know what the effects of them are. P16, Female.

User Awareness of the existence of security software that is available for smartphones (e.g., antivirus, firewall, etc.)

To gain an understanding of the users general security awareness associated with smartphone usage. From the interview findings, it can be indicated that most of the smartphone users showed that they are aware of the existence of security software that is available for smartphones (e.g., antivirus, firewall). Surprisingly, only few of those who are aware of the existence of such software of the antivirus, firewall software that are available for smartphones, only few of them stated that they already in use of it.

Yes, and I use it. P1, Male.

I only use the Vodaphone one I have on there, so they have a, the network provider provides one and that is what I use. I do have a login for like, I got you know how if you buy an antivirus you get like 3 or 4 accounts so I could put my PC antivirus on the phone it just does not, I am not sure it is more secure that just having the network providers one, because theyre powered by some brand, I recognise the brand name that the network provider uses for their virus protection so it is probably as good as anything else out there. P9, Male.

On the other hand, some of the smartphone users declared that they are not aware of the availability of security software for the smartphones, however, they are only aware of the availability of such software only for PCs and Laptops. The following participant confirms this point:

That is something that I associate much more with computers rather that phones, I know viruses and Trojans, and any kind malware and encryption malware, something like that I know It happens with computers, but I am not so aware that it has being something that phones, I mean I have viruses with computers, but not really a cold problems just the antivirus software finds it and get rid of it. P8, Male.

Few of those who are not aware of the presence and do not use security software on their smartphones, believe that installing such a software would be useful and great.

No, I do not know and do not use any, I think it is very important because if you can use it the same way you do on your laptop or your computer because it is so important. P15, Female.

Yes, I am aware of them, but I have never been affected by them unless I do not know what the effects of them are. No, I am just aware about the ones for computers and laptops but for mobile phones I have never used them or know about them. I think it would be great thing because I am always worried about my confidential private data, so, if they provide protection for my phone and security it would be a great thing for me. P16, Female.

Installing an anti-virus app/ Adoption of security controls

Install a suitable software to secure the smartphone and to protect stored data on it from malicious software. When it comes to the usefulness of the available security software for smartphone, most of the participants who already used it on their smartphones reported that they found it very useful for their security. The example below shows that participant use antivirus and found it useful.

Yes, I use some anti-virus stuff. I think I have AVG's, a free anti-virus stuff that I use. Well, I guess I have never had any problems with viruses, so I do not know how useful, but I expect it seems like a sensible thing to do to me. P3, Male.

However, other participants think that such software will be useful even they do not use it on their smartphones as shown by the following example:

It is probably. I would say it probably is useful even though I do not have it. P10, Female.

In addition, few of the participants declared that they assume that the security software for smartphone is already included in the apple OS, and they think that they do not need to install another security software to protect their devices. The following participants responses confirmed this point:

Not really, I know for like desktop computers but, I assumed it is part of the operating system. P5, Male.

Another added that:

Not really, no. I know something must exist because I know the operating system on apple has built in firewalls and what not but it is so different from a computer where you have like MacAfee or Norton on your computer, I mean, I think there's so much assumption that your phone just has it all built in, so we do not even think about it. P10, Female.

Usefulness of security software on smartphones

Yea, it is just good to know on the back of your head that there are protections in place already that you know there are some mechanisms set up to keep you safe. Even if you're not constantly thinking about them, if anything does go wrong, well you have got that, well, hopefully the firewall's got it or something. P10, Female.

Different reasons were reported for why both who use the security software on their smartphones and who do not use it. Users who have use it indicated that the usefulness of the software depends on what they use it for as shown by the following participant answer:

I do not tend to surf like to any sites I do not really trust, like I know that you can get, I know that big sites can be compromised but I think the risk is quite low and Id be worried about performance because the phone is already quite slow. So, Id, I think running an antivirus system on the phone might be.., it might degrade the performance to the point where it is not useful, so, that is, so if it was, if there was no overhead I would absolutely go for it, but I think it is probably secure enough given the low risk at the moment. P9, Male.

Another reason indicated that by another participant who is aware of the availability of the software but not actually using it, as they do not connect to the Internet all the time, and they think using such a software would be useful.

I think that depends on how much you use the phone online, or via Wi-Fi connections. I hardly use it for that purpose, to be honest. I think it can be quite useful for people who use the Internet a lot, just to stay more protected. P18, Female.

No adoption of security software

On the other hand, the findings indicated that participants who do not use the security software on their smartphones and that they are aware of the existence of such software reported that they tend to believe that smartphone security software is not essential or is not useful and, they tend not to use them as they did not need it.

So yes, I am aware of it as well, but I do not use it, I have not found a need for it myself, so not very useful I think. P7, Male.

I think that will depend on the range of your activities, what you really do on your phone. So probably if you would use it like to install external software and if you use your phone extensively for banking then, yes, probably it would be quite useful. But at the same time, you know like you hear articles and news stories like about Kaspersky labs that you know they were spying on users. That makes me a bit cautious. So, I think it is a bit tricky one, because obviously it has benefits but it has cons. P6, Male.

Getting advice on information security

From the analysis of the participants responses in relation to gaining an information security advice, most of the participants revealed that they have not got any advice related to the smartphone security. While some of the smartphone users declared that they have got advice on the information security. It ranges from UG security course, PRB courses, general advice not specific to smartphones. The following answers confirms this point:

Yeah, some of this information was useful. Like when you get an e-mail for example from people you do not know, do not follow the links if you do not trust the sender. Also, sometimes on Twitter on social media they put fake news here is the link. They put for example International News which is attracting people. Then when you click on the link, it is going to be something damaging to your phone. So, some of this information I think yes, it is useful. P4, Female.

I think like when I was doing some RDP courses in general, they did tell us, ok just use cloud services do not try to store everything on your physical drive, and I think it is sensible. Yea, I found it quite useful just to be aware that you know like university itself has this like storage system, strath cloud, and it is good to learn you know like from mistakes. P6, Male.

Sharing contents online

The ease of use and convenience of sharing contents on smartphones might motivated

smartphone users to share different contents on their smartphones. Most of the participants share many things on their smartphones including pictures, messages, PDF files and articles, emails, SM, newspaper websites, music, and photos.

The following two participants indicated that they share images, videos to interact with others. So mainly to socialise by sending text messages and emails.

Mainly images, videos, texts. First, because everyone else is doing it. That is one part. The second reason is that, you know, you would like to keep some people, not all. Because in most of my social media, I have very few friends. You like to keep them up to date with what youre doing. Sometimes youre in some professional platform like LinkedIn where you share your skills and other stuff you have done. So, yeah. Mainly to interact with others. To socialise and all that. P12, Male.

Maybe a picture via Skype. Just for example when I was away on holiday, I just wanted to send my mum a picture. But other than that, I do not really think I share anything with other people. I send and receive texts all the time. E-mails I do not really send over my phone, I just use it to read. P18, Female.

Sharing personal information with others

Most of the participants revealed that they share their personal with others:

For general enough notion, personal information yes. I am not sure, well, I sort of prefer not to do it much. I know some of my personal information can be used like to access my bank account or something like that so, I just want to keep to, some sort of redundancy in how, I do not want to be right on the edge of someone being able to break into my bank account and they just need like a number or something. P5, Male.

Yeah possibly. I am quite scared of it to be honest; I am quite nervous about it. But because I do not know how dangerous it is I have not, it has not prevented me from sharing information sometimes, but when I do, I do feel a bit unsure about it yeah. P11, Female

Yeah, I do feel okay with this, yeah. It is okay because well, ideally, in an ideal world, you wouldnt want that, right? But on the other hand, they must store it somewhere to for you to go back sometimes and see what you have written in chat or what you have uploaded. It cannot be intangible. Somewhere all this information will be uploaded somewhere. It must be shared somewhere. So, yeah. P12, Male.

Participants on the other hand indicated that they do not share any personal data for some reasons as confirmed with the followings answers:

Except of my name and my date of birth, obviously, when I am at work, you know everything about you, on Facebook you know where you are, but not my address. It is externally dangerous, and even I do that, still I do not like the fact that I do that because as dangerous need one anyone because you do not want anyone to look even if it is private, anyone can still look at your profile. P15, Female.

Yes possibly. I am quite scared of it to be honest; I am quite nervous about it. But because I do not know how dangerous it is I have not, it has not prevented me from sharing information sometimes, but when I do, I do feel a bit unsure about it yeah. P11, Female.

Opinions about sharing personal information via the Internet

I think it is dangerous, currently. But sometimes you have just got to, if you need to meet up with someone and you want to give them your address, then you just need to text them it. I would never text bank details, but I have texted other information. For example, like my subscription card number for paying an Internet bill I have done. But you sort of hope that it is safe, that nobody is reading. And even if somebody is reading it, they cannot really use it in any way. P18, Female.

Having concerns with the privacy of personal data in connection with mobile phone use

Most of the participants are concerned about their personal data in connection with mobile phone use.

Yes, well, I think pictures are one of the biggest concerns, I think. There are all sorts of theories about how people have access to your camera and lots of people put blockers on their camera and I know that is probably a very real thing. So, I think that is probably one of the things that concerns me the most, you know access to the camera and the photos that are on your phone. P11, Female.

Yes, I think the main concern is who is reading what you are sending. Because you do kind of assume that it is safe. And so far, I have not had any issues with it. I do not go to the extent of sharing bank detail information. So, I am still being cautious about it, and I would not share extremely sensitive information via text message, like my passport details. But certainly, through my e-mail inbox, I have sensitive information in there. So that is a little bit concerning in terms of who has access to read any of that. But that does not necessarily have anything to do with a smartphone. So, for example if somebody has access to your inbox, they can do it regardless of a smartphone, they can do it over a computer. So, you have just got to try and stay protected and hope for the best. P18, Female.

Health issues and precautions

In this part, this study tried to investigate if there are any issues that are related to the users health in association with the use of the smartphone as it is believed that smartphone excessive usage can disrupt someones sleep that can cause a significant influence on their overall mental health. It can impact their memory, reduce their cognitive, affect their ability to think clearly, and reduce their learning skills.

Most of the participants indicated that they do not consider any health issues associated with the smartphone usage. On the other hand, few of them reported that they have concerns about their mental health.

From the findings none of the participants have reported any of the issues that smartphones can cause, such as sleep problems, which led to depression, anxiety and acting out.

Mental health, yea, I think people become overly attached to their phones sometimes. It is the way like, when you walk up and down the street nowadays all you see is people constantly looking down at their phones. You do not know the tone of something so, it can have big repercussions you know if you have a fall out with a friend over text and you maybe do not understand what they are trying to say to you. You can get really upset and take things the wrong way. But I think it can be stressful as well, like I say, like I enjoy nowadays that my phone does not ping every 2 seconds because it gives you anxiety. Because you are constantly going, they have not messaged me back yet. Oh, or it is pinging away distracting you or that. But physical health as well. The number of times I have been too busy with my phone, and I have nearly fallen down a set of stairs or like walked into a lamp post it is unbelievable like it happens all the time. P10, Female.

When asking the participants if they take any precautions about this, several opinions were gathered from their answers. The following two responses were reported by the participants.

Yeah, I tried, but I do not think so. Having some neck pain using the phone. Sometimes you feel like you are an addict because you are always holding your phone throughout the whole day. So, I try to minimise the hours that I spend on my phone, but you cannot guarantee that you are doing so. P4, Female.

I try not to walk and use my phone at the same time if I can avoid it, but you know we all do, we all still do it. And with my phone like, when I go home in the evening, I tend to just leave my phone in a different room and only check it once before I go to bed so that I am not sitting glued to it all day. P10, Female.

Smartphone app installation

The purpose of these questions is to know whether the participants install mobile apps or not, what are these apps and what the most used smartphone apps among the participants are. Also, to know where they download them from to gain an understanding as well as to check what factors they would consider when installing an app. Also, we wanted to seek information about if the participants are aware that there may be risks when they install apps to their smartphones and this section includes some location related questions as well.

Most of the participants reported that they install apps to their smartphones. Whereas, only one stated that he did not download apps on his smartphone as he said that to not take up space. Most of them used (1-20) apps, a few of them used about 30 apps and only one installed greater than 50 apps on their smartphones.

Not very many, I regularly use WhatsApp, the YouTube app, BBC news app, audio books, I listen to audio books on my phone. I may have 7-10 apps I use regularly, Facebook, Google, and Google maps, these are the most used apps. I do have Facebook, Twitter, those only the social apps. P8, Male.

There is probably about 30. P9, Male.

Main criteria in choosing apps to download on users smartphones

The interview results revealed some app selection criteria such as: price/cost, recommendation, developer, review, reputation, security/privacy, usefulness, usability, storage, and efficiency, safe to use. Most of the participants revealed that they consider the cost, app reviews and app reputation, usefulness of the app/ utility/ and its rating as the main criteria that they consider when choosing apps to install on their smartphones. Significantly, most of the participants reported that they consider only known developers or app providers who they trust as the main criteria.

Importantly, both security and safety of the app, and the need for it were the choice of most of the participants. Whereas, easy to use, friends recommendations, app space, privacy were mentions by few of the participants that they consider those as important factors affecting their decision to install the app or not.

Ok, I think like the top one, number 1 criteria would be: do I need it? And then if I need it, is there like a free version of that, available somewhere, that is available through trusted party but yea number one issue, do I really need it? And what do I need it for? P6, Male.

I am not sure, generally the apps that I download, I already know about them, because someone told me about them, such as Instagram is a very well-known one. But if I do not know about them yet, I look at all the reviews first. A little about security or usefulness, developer, if I see an app that just seems a bit dodgy, I do think, wonder, is it secure and I might be, reconsider downloading it if I am not sure who the developer is or if it is secure enough. P11, Female.

To be honest the security and the privacy, these are the main criteria. The cost, to be honest I did not install any app ask me for money. Just I take the free one, like social media is free, if app ask me for to bay something, I never install that one. About the reviews, I am considered about the reviews, if someone said that is not good, or this will share your information, so, I will take this point into my account. P17, Female.

Use of SM apps

The findings revealed that there were many different social, employment, entertainment, help, and problem solving and educational apps that were using among the participants. These apps included apps such as: Snapchat, Twitter and Instagram, Facebook, Browser, YouTube, Google, Google maps, Skype, Imo, Telegram, Viber, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, Games app, BBC news, Pillowtalk, Audiobooks, audible, driving and dictionary app. Notably, Facebook was the most used app among the participants, followed by Snapchat, Twitter, WhatsApp and Instagram. The following participants illustrate some of the apps that are using.

So, I have Facebook, Facebook messenger, and WhatsApp. P15, Female.

Twitter a lot, and Facebook, maybe Snapchat and Instagram sometimes. I use them just with my close friends and my family, but Twitter and Facebook with the whole. P17, Female.

The participants revealed that they use different SM platforms to communicate with others. The most common platform used by the participants was Facebook. The second most common was Snapchat, followed by Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram respectively. Other platforms were represented, but they were less used.

Pirated apps

The findings of this study showed that most of the participants reported that they did not used pirated apps in their smartphones. Only few participants have used them for reasons such as if the app version is free, from open source and limited access.

Because at the time I felt like there was no open source or free version of the software. I think it was an emulator, to play games on my phone. Yea, that is just because I have not found any like free version of this app. But I did not keep it for long, because I found another better and free app, which is nicer. I do not like to install pirated apps in general. P1, Male.

On contrast, most of the participants indicated that they have not installed any pirated apps on their smartphones. Various reasons were reported for those who have not used the pirated apps, for example, some stated that they only use the known ones, do not install unknown apps as they might contain viruses, some of the smartphone users reported that they trust the AppStore and they are sure that the Apple will not them download such apps, only the original ones, whereas a few numbers of them have moral concerns that prevented them from downloading pirated apps.

No, no. Apple would not let you, no. You always must buy through the app store. P13, Female.

No, I do not think so. I think because the kind of apps I use are very well known, and quite easy I think to see that. It is hard to download the wrong Twitter app. And I trust that that app is legitimate. P14, Male.

Awareness that there may be risks when installing apps

In addition to the previous questions, participants were asked about their awareness of the risks that are maybe associated with installing apps, most participants were aware that there may be some risks when they install app on their smartphones, only one participant revealed that he thought that the App store is safe.

Yes, I am aware. The issue I would say I installed one app. It was supposed to stream frequent movies for me to watch. But it is not working very well, and the app charges you ten pounds for three months. And it does not work quite efficiently, and the reviews are quite poor. I had to delete the app. I stopped the payments. I now had to download a similar one. P13, Female.

Some participants revealed that they are aware of the risks associated with the app installation, but they have not experienced any issues with the apps that they installed.

No, I have not got any issues as I am careful when I install anything on my phone, and as my phone is personal thing and is important for me, so, I tried to install the most secure things and sometimes consider the privacy. P17, Female.

Other participants revealed that they trust the app developer such Play store and they think that the app is safe, and they do not think that there might be a risk when they install apps from them.

Not if youre installing it through Play store, I think. So, if you know you are installing it from a reliable source, then I think it is safe, because it would be the same as installing an app on your computer. I would only install it if it was from a reliable source. So, I am sure there a lot of malicious apps out there and risks, but if you know where youre installing it from, I think it is safe. P18, Female.

On contrast, only one participant revealed that he thought that the App store is safe and that they were not aware of any risks that might encounter users when they install apps on their smartphone. The following participant confirms this.

I kind of assumed that the play store was fairly safe but I did not know there was any risks and have not got any issues with apps that I installed. P3, Male.

Regarding the experiences of the participants, the findings reported that few numbers of the participants have experienced some issues while they are using some of the apps. Some of the participants found that the app was not working efficiently, and some found that these are unwanted/ invasive apps after the have installed them. Also, some found that the app does freeze or stopped their phone which made them uninstall theses apps.

Participants have reported that they uninstall, delete, or remove the app from their smartphones when such thing happened.

Yes, sometimes you install an app and then you find it has installed other stuff on your phone that is unwanted. So, I think this is the problem that I had. I think I would go back and see which app I have downloaded that caused the problem, and try to delete the app or uninstall it. P4, Female.

Sort of security issues. Sometimes some apps do not work very well. I think sometimes it is difficult to update things, I did a couple of times I removed the Facebook app after I downloaded it. P8, Male.

I guess a little bit that there are apps that you download that are a bit invasive, which isn't what you would have with a general normal app. So, I have noticed stuff like that where it is seems to be taking over your phone a little bit and doing more than you thought you allowed it to do. I uninstalled it in the end. P11, Female.

Some participants had deleted an app as they found that they are not useful.

Sometimes just with the usability, I install an app and I do not find it useful as I expected so. I just delete it. P16, Female.

Awareness of permissions that apps ask for before app installation

All the participants in this interview have stated that they are aware that the apps will ask for permissions while the installation process as confirmed by the following participants:

Yes. I try to read what is the permission and if they will share my information or personal information, I must be aware of that. P17, Female.

Awareness that some phone apps may capture information on users location

All participants are aware of that apps can capture their location information. Most of them stated that this concerns them, and this was for different reasons. For example, privacy, violation of privacy, threatening privacy distraction, exposure, upsetting. While others do not think that tracking is a risk factor. As indicated by the following participants:

It is something dangerous for third parties to be aware where am I, as location is personal and can threatening my privacy. So, I do not allow it to reveal my location. P4, Female.

Yes, it does. The problem is exposure. P6, Male.

Yah, I think there is something a little bit distracting, it is quite inconvenient, everywhere, everyone you have spoken to. I think if someone were able to get their hands to all this data, they would make you more venerable to be targeted for scams, or other kind of criminality, I do not like the idea of being tracked and monitored all the time. P8, Male.

While others do not think that tracking is a risk factor. For example,

My location is tracked by a fitness app, it is annoying, but I do not think that my location is a big risk factor, I would consider it to be invasion of privacy but do not know if it is a big risk. P9, Male.

Paying attention to security messages that appear during the app installation process

Most participants stated that they do pay attention to security messages that appear during the app installation process on their smartphones, whereas only few stated that they do not pay attention to these messages. The following two participants show that.

I think I intended to read these things. P8, Male.

Whereas only few stated that they do not pay attention to these messages.

I do not tend to notice them normally. P10, Female.

No, I just check the progress. Installed and then download it. And then installing and that is it. Never. P12, Male.

Paying attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process

Most of the participants do not pay attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process on their smartphones.

Never. I always just scroll down and click accept terms and conditions' I do not think anyone reads that. P10, Female.

No. I just agree and go. I hardly read them. Maybe because they are too long as well. If they could just give a summary of each, then if you are interested in the one that gives you consent, you can read all of it. But they just write a whole lot, and you do not have the time to really read all of it. P13, Female.

Not that much, I just read it very quick, never to be honest, just a very quick read, OK, if I need this app, I have to agree or I have to leave it. So, if I need it so I have to agree, before that I just consider the reviews, the original, if someone said something about that, so, that is it. P17, Female.

Some of the participants agree licensing agreements without reading it as they have no choice, and as they are too long so they skip some of these messages without paying any attention to them. Some said that they consider reviews before agreeing.

I used to read like all of them in detail and you know like I think creating a google account is a prime example because if you say no, that is it, you know. P6, Male.

Sometimes apps ask you to allow access to your photos like social media apps like Viber and WhatsApp, so I usually allow them to, if I want to share photos, but from this I have never had any other security messages I think. P16, Female.

Opinions of users about whether mobile phones tell others who they are and where are they

Most the participants think that mobile phones tell others who they are and where are they.

Yea, of course. The more kind of searches you conduct the better profile they can collect of yourself. Let us say, ok I am looking for a flight to New Jersey for instance, I am checking up article I am looking up conference date. Oh, ok this guy is an academic, maybe he is going for a conference, and I only did like 3 searches you know, and they know, so yea. Yea like so I think from my understanding is you know like creating like an online profile is a question of you know like lock history so all searches that you conducted and then you have got the cookies, ok? So, in order to personalise result they say ok, by the way, we can offer you more better target results, but you know like we just need you to provide this this and that or well be recording this. P6, Male.

Whereas few of the participants do not think that mobile phones tell others who they are and where are they.

I do not think so, but I am not sure, no. Unless it is for example a telephone company, I know that they have full records about you, for example where you are and who you are, where the signal is coming from. But for others, you mean? So, do mobile phones tell others who you are? Yeah, sometimes they may sell some information about their clients to other third-party companies. P4, Female.

Disable the GPS of the smartphone to protect unauthorized access to the device.

Most of the participants turn off GPS on their smartphones. And that was for many different reasons such as battery life, for privacy and do not want to reveal their locations. Some indicated that they let some apps access their locations such as fitness apps and maps for travel times.

Most of the participants turn off GPS as it consumes battery, drains battery, preserve battery. While most other reasons for turning off GPS were that users do not like that apps know their locations, and they do not want to reveal their locations and to keep their locations private.

My first reason, it is because it is consumed a lot of energy so that is mainly to save like some battery time. But the other reason is I do not want my apps to know where I am all the time because I gave them permission to use the GPS, but if I am not using the app and the GPS is off, I know they cannot track me. P1, Male.

Yah, I do, when I am not actually using the phone for navigating, mainly because it seems to make battery last lot longer if you turn it off. I noticed that when a location is on, the battery goes empty very quickly. it is the main reason, I think the phone still track the location even if you turn it off, I know by turning it off, I am not actually tracked, it is not good to know where I am. P8, Male.

While most other reasons for turning off GPS were that users do not like that apps know their locations, and they do not want to reveal their locations and to keep their locations private.

For the same reason I turn off Internet and Wi-Fi. I just do not want people spying one me. But also, just to preserve battery. If theres no reason for me to have it on, then I will switch it off. P18, Female.

Other participants turn on GPS on their smartphones as they need it a lot:

No, I need it a lot, especially maps, when I am going somewhere then I can see where I am on the dot, so I know where I am going. Or if I am looking for the soonest train it'll tell me what my nearest station is and stuff like that, so I feel like I need to have GPS a lot. P11, Female.

Friendships

Regarding sharing contents with friends, whether the users share any contents with their friends, what they share, what they do not like to share and who are sharing the contents with. It was also important to ask specific question about sharing things with strangers to check to what extend the users are aware of some security risks.

Most participants stated that they were interested in sharing their contents with their friends or with the people or those who shared the same interests. The following participants illustrate this point.

Yeah, definitely. I am not going to share anything with strangers that I do not know. P4, Female.

On contrast, few participants reported that they did not share any contents with friends that they do not know personally.

Yes, sure I do not share things with people I do not know. P16, Female.

Most of the participants stated that they do not share any content with people they have not met personally or with strangers.

No, I never share anything personal with people I do not know. I do not feel safe to reveal myself and reveal personal content to strangers. P4, Female.

Users opinions about sharing content with strangers

No. I feel that it is very dangerous. Because it could be for privacy and security reasons you do not know him, you do not know who hes going to be, so it might be a bad person. P4, Female.

While few of the participants reported that they share content with people that they have not met personally.

Yes, I do. It depends like, for instance, with Slack, I was working with some other students, and I have not met them personally, but we were sharing files, it was mainly programming related files. So, I think for work. This kind of app I think it is OK, but you have to be careful to whom you are speaking, and what kind of content you're sharing, obviously. P1, Male.

Parental control

The objective of this section was to obtain a deeper insight in the nature of the parents control of the smartphone users, whether were there any rules about students mobile phone usage, disagreements with their parents and whether they mind if their parents monitor their mobile phone usage.

During the interview analysis, several themes that are related to the parents control emerged. These themes are credit card usage, accepting friend and dealing with strangers, monitoring, privacy/ security awareness, SM, appropriate monitoring age and Internet access.

This research found that most smartphone users did not have any rules in the past on their mobile phone usage by their parents.

No, not really, my first phone was pay as you go top up phone, so, I could not run up huge bills or anything, so, I know they were fairly relaxed. P8, Male.

Only one of the participants stated that because the technology has changed, now the user can access anything, but before no, also, there was a limited access to the Internet and the connection was not as good as today.

In the past, no, I do not think so, because when I was young, we did not have the same technology we have today. So usually, I did not use the phone as much as I do today as I mentioned. It was mainly for phone calls, or text messages. I think it was safer in those days than today, because today using your phone you can access everything just using your phone. So, I just used to in emergencies, not like the situation today. P4, Female.

Another participant indicated that they have not got any rules as their contract was pay as you go, so, they could not run up huge bills, and that they know that their parents were relaxed.

No, not really, I would have to, my first phone was pay as you go top up phone, so, I couldn't run up huge bills or anything, so, I know they were fairly relaxed. P8, Male.

Some of the participants stated that there were not any rules on their phone usage as their first phones were not smart, so, just to make calls and text messages.

No. At the time when I got my first phone it was voice and text only so there was not really a lot you could control and it was my contract so there was not really anything there. P9, Male.

Another participant indicated that:

I did not get a phone unless I go out myself. P12, Male.

Some parents were sitting some rules on their childrens mobile phone usage for health reasons. For example, one of the participants that his mother was telling him to put the mobile further away, so it does not affect him with electromagnet waves P12, Male.

Similarly, another parent was telling her daughter to switch off her mobile at night-time, so she was not allowed to use it at night.

In the past, yes. I was not allowed to use my phone at night-time. So, I had to have it switched off when I was in bed. And obviously do not run up a huge bill. But because it was a pay as you go the responsibility was with me, so if I used up all my credit, then they would not give me extra money to top it up. So, if they gave me ten pounds, that would need to last me for a month. So, then I was allocating how much I was using it. P18, Female.

Some parents have put some rules on their childs phone usage for different reasons; to check where their children are all the time.

In the past. See like the main reason I got a phone I think was because my mum just wanted to check where I am so she would have like more control over it. But that phone like it couldnt access Internet even. If you are late make sure you call me, make sure you text me. This kind of control. I know but then nothing other. P6, Male.

Other parent would not give a mobile to his children unit they are in an appropriate age for example until they are at the university, so, he can make sure that they are mature enough to have a mobile phone.

Well, the only thing I know is when the mobile phone was introduced, my dad would not get you a phone until you have entered the university. But that has changed now, because younger, in secondary schools, like grade schools, they have phones now. But I remember when it came in, he would not buy you a phone until you went to university, just to say, you are quite mature. No. Like who you call? Oh no. They do not even look at your phone. P13, Female.

Another reason for putting some rules was that the parent was paying for the contract, so, there was a limit on how they can use calls and text messages.

Yeah, my dad pays, or used to pay for my mobile phone, so, there is a limit on how many texts, and phone calls, and usage. Also, my little brother is only eleven, and he has a phone, and he is not allowed to go and search on Internet sites, only for games and stuff like that, and to contact people, so, I basically say most websites are, so, you do not use the Internet too much, and you do not go to many websites that you are not really for your age group, and something like that. P15, Female.

Other parents have put some rules on their childs computer or laptop more than on a smartphone.

I do not think my parents did have any rules as far as I know. I mean when I was a teenager phones where a big thing, but they were not, they did not consume your life because social media was not such a thing yet. So, my parents had a little bit of rules about using my laptop, they would say okay it is time to stop, but not much about my smartphone. P11, Female.

In terms of having disagreements with parents about the phone use. Most of the participants revealed that they have not had any disagreement with their parents about their mobile phone usage.

To be honest I cannot remember any situation where we had a disagreement about it. P11, Female.

No, I know the parents take tie to make sure their kids in a safe environment, to aware their kids about their privacy, about the security as you know with a mobile phone, with a social media everything is open to the whole world. P17, Female.

Only few of the participants stated that they had some disagreements with their parents.

I guess as a teenager you know like when you want to have your independence and maybe youre with your friends and your mom is like calling you all the time to check and know where you are. So, then yeah probably yeah I told my mom a few times that I think like shes overly protective. P6, Male.

Yes, to some extent. If they feel you are in danger, they should protect their kids I think. P4, Female.

Whereas few of the participants stated that it is not OK for parents to monitor their childrens mobile phone usage.

No, I do not think it is okay. Maybe they could monitor the kind of friends I keep, but my mobile phone usage they can only offer advice on what I could do and how I could do it. But certainly not to monitor my usage. I just believe that they can call me as a child and say see, if you do this, it is wrong. If you meet a stranger on Facebook and go and visit the person, it is very wrong. And I will say yes, mummy, I will not do that. I would not even give them my phone. P13, Female.

However, there was a concern that parental control should not be intrusive. The following two participants illustrate this point.

I think if they are paying for it then you are. I think there is a difference between putting some controls in and monitoring so, I think there should be some sort of agreement. So, I think it depends on the individual, but I think there should be, the main thing is just kept it honest, whatever is happening, sort of make it clear what the agreement is. Because there must be a level of trust there, that can cause lots of arguments. P9, Male.

I think it is Okay if youre under eighteen. But over that, I think it becomes a bit intrusive, unless they have legitimate concerns that you are doing something. But then I think it would be better to talk to your children rather than monitor them when you are a bit older, I think. P18, Female.

Perceptions of using mobile phones for educational activities

The objective of this section is to obtain a deeper insight in students use of smartphones, as well as their attitudes towards educational use of mobile devices, kind of educational information do you access, what educational apps are primarily used on their phones, and how useful is it for their studies.

Impact of Using Smartphone Apps on the Learning Process

This research found that majority of smartphone users in this study, both male and female, use their smartphones as educational tools. They also found that their smartphones are helpful tools for their educational work. They used their devices to access a variety of educational resources, including learning (educational information), sharing knowledge, employment, entertainment (leisure), SM, and general problem-solving assistance.

Smartphone apps are important as tools for learning and knowledge updates

Several participants described why educational smartphone apps are crucial as educational tools and discussed the important role they play in aiding the educational process by allowing students to read papers, save and store data, and access books and research at any time. They are beneficial educational aids that make information readily available. Some believe that smartphone apps will become the key tool in the learning process. Some respondents, on the other hand, did not believe that smartphone apps would be appropriate as the key tool in the educational process for a variety of reasons.

Yea, I guess so. I mean, since I am a PhD student, I use it if I am looking for papers or if I need to research definitions then it is a quick and easy way to look things up. P3, Male.

Yes, sometimes as I told you in sharing articles and maybe also looking for educational YouTube and related to some that you need to understand more maybe online lectures. P16, Female.

For learning they use different educational information such as reading papers, articles, journals, PDF files, as well as getting e-books and Google play books as they said that it is easy to read through the phone. Some also reported that they prefer to listen to educational materials through YouTube channels, different podcasts, and audio books, which students describe this as critical to their learning.

Like papers, like anything that I could use. So, papers, articles, lectures that I need to look at or if I need to find a definition quickly. Yea, it could be anything and everything I need for work. P3, Male.

I would say I use it to reach articles a lot, I would say yes. Yes, I do not have any apps like, I did used to have language app upon it to teach phrases but regarding my study, I would say just articles, Google scholar is super good, so, I go to that all the time. P15, Female.

They also determine that they share information using their smartphones by following academics and researchers using links on Twitter as a SM, and in addition to using Google Scholar as a learning platform. Browsing specific websites to look for some information and using the university library website, and, for a general look at the abstracts.

Few of the participants use their smartphones for work purposes and to find a job. Audially, few of them have used their smartphones for getting definition quickly. In addition, few of them have used their smartphones for getting help with a software and finding solutions to some problems. In the meantime, others indicated that they mostly use their devices for research interests such as programming and implementation of codes.

However, some smartphone users preferred to use their devices as a learning tool in a different way, they use games, for example, some have a vocabulary app, and some have a dual lingo app to learn different languages such as Japanese language.

Interestingly, in terms of downloading the educational apps, most of the participants have downloaded some educational apps, these apps verified from learning apps, sharing apps, reading apps, leisure apps, and information apps.

The learning apps include dictionary apps to get translations to different languages, YouTube channels to watch some videos. Some of the participants have installed sharing apps such as Slack app. Also, some of the participants indicated that they are using some reading apps such as iBook and Audible to read while they are on the go or which they are far from their PCs or laptops. And other have mentioned that they are using listening apps for example, language app such as dual lingo app and some podcasts. However, a minority of the participants are using some leisure and entertainment apps such educational games apps, and movies apps. They indicated that they could learn through playing some games such as a word game, a vocabulary list, and information apps including news apps such as BBC news app, sharing apps, reading apps, leisure apps, and information apps.

So, I think the only one will be Slack channel to enable communication between people. It is like messenger, but you know in a, in like an educational context. It is useful to be aware when my supervisor is talking to me, when he sent me like some documents or anything, I think it is quicker and more modern than sending an email. Because it is like conversation. I think it is the main reason why I use it. P1, Male.

So, yeah, the game apps, like Sudoku and Crosswords. But the university app I find useful because you can get into so much on it. It is a good app now, it is good to go through the library, the supremo system, to get onto journals. I will only use it maybe if I am on the bus and we're stuck in traffic, I will use it just to read a journal article, maybe or just to play a wee game. You feel better that you're using your time doing something productive. P10, Female.

Languages mostly, so learning new languages. I do not know whether it counts as educational information, but I just recently started to use Twitter just to follow up other academics. So, dual Lingo. This is still installed on the phone, and you know like the good thing about it is you know like you can decide how much time you can devote to it so sometimes I only have 5 minutes, ok let us do a quick lesson and it feels like a game almost. P6, Male.

Challenges facing the use of smartphone apps in learning

Smartphone apps, like any new technology, have significant limits that pose issues. For example, screen sizes can be too small, especially for reading pages of text; and the size of the phone's memory may be is not enough to store apps on it.

The findings of the present study reveal that smartphone users can experience major challenges in mobile learning. Some of the issues that have faced students are small screen and low storge of the phone. For example, small screen sizes that is hard to read paper, editing text or writing assignment. Another reason was low storage of the phone that they there will not be enough space to download educational apps.

On contrast, surprisingly, very few participants do not use their smartphones for educational activities for reason such as they do not like to use a small screen to read, hard to use it for edit text or write an assignment. But they can use it to access a university or institutional email, YouTube videos or lecture slides as demonstrated by the following three responses.

Not a lot, because it is hard to use it for example for editing text or writing an assignment. But sometimes just for accessing YouTube to see a video about something, or slides. But not for heavy education tool. P4, Female.

No, not that much, I do not like to use it as educational, I like to use paper or a PC, desktop/laptop, something bigger than an iPhone. P17, Female.

I think I do not have any educational apps, maybe I am just using iBook that is already on the phone, so I am storing my articles there and using the Internet whenever I need to just to provide space, as I told you my phone is not very big, does not have a lot of storage. So, you can quickly just open your app and it is also, it can work offline so that is a good point so if you do not have Internet access you can still use it. P16, Female.Table STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 2: Example of used apps by smartphone users in this studyApp Type App Name

Educational apps Google scholar, YouTube, LinkedIn, Dual lingo, Twitter, eBook, and Slack.

Informational BBC news, Google maps

Employment apps LinkedIn

Entertainment apps Sudoku, Crosswords, GitHub, auditable, and podcast.

SM apps Skype, Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, Snapchat, Telegram, Viber.

Help & problem-solving apps Dictionary app

Risk-related issuesUsers may not understand what constitutes risky security behaviour, and as a result, theirdevices may be subject to attacks. This section will present risk-related issues that expose users to malware risk. If the attitude is positive, it is assumed that the user will not be at high risk. Whereas if the user exhibited a negative attitude towards smartphone usage, so, they might be at high risk of getting a malware.

Types of Behaviour

User behaviour can be perceived as risky in a variety of ways, for example, interacting with poorly developed web-based apps might expose users to code vulnerabilities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Payne</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>48</RecNum><DisplayText>(Payne &amp; Edwards, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>48</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">48</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Payne, Bryan D</author><author>Edwards, W Keith</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A brief introduction to usable security</title><secondary-title>IEEE Internet Computing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Internet Computing</full-title></periodical><pages>13-21</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2008</year></dates><isbn>1089-7801</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Payne & Edwards, 2008). Creating weak passwords, sharing passwords ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Stanton</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>46</RecNum><DisplayText>(Payne &amp; Edwards, 2008; Stanton et al., 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>46</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">46</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Stanton, Jeffrey M</author><author>Stam, Kathryn R</author><author>Mastrangelo, Paul</author><author>Jolton, Jeffrey</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Analysis of end user security behaviors</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>124-133</pages><volume>24</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Payne</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>48</RecNum><record><rec-number>48</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">48</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Payne, Bryan D</author><author>Edwards, W Keith</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A brief introduction to usable security</title><secondary-title>IEEE Internet Computing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Internet Computing</full-title></periodical><pages>13-21</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2008</year></dates><isbn>1089-7801</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Payne & Edwards, 2008; Stanton et al., 2005) and downloading data from dangerous and unsafewebsites are all risky behaviours PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5GZXRzY2hlcmluPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwOTwvWWVh

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Fetscherin, 2009; Shepherd et al., 2013). Sharing too much contents on social networks is also considered as a risky behaviour according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hadnagy</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hadnagy, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hadnagy, Christopher</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Social engineering: The art of human hacking</title></titles><dates><year>2010</year></dates><publisher>John Wiley &amp; Sons</publisher><isbn>1118029712</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hadnagy, 2010).

Risks associated with smartphone usage as shown in Table 5-3

Having a smartphone

Exposure of info because of selling smartphones

Increased smartphone usage

Exposure of info because of losing a phone or had it stolen

Data stored on smartphones

Internet access

Misplacing smartphones

Table STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 3: Risks associate to smartphone usageSource of Risk Findings Comments

Having a smartphone All participants have a smartphone and always connected to the Internet, so, they might be at risk. Having a smartphone means connected to the Internet, so, it is exposing the user to the malware risk.

Exposure of info because of selling smartphones Most participants keep their old phones either for a backup in case they lost their current smartphones or have them broken, others chose to keep it for memory, or they just do not want to disclose their information stored on their phones as they have concerns about the confidentiality of their personal data stored on their smartphone. Attitude: sell it, so, the information can be exposed to malware risk, exposure of information.

Increased smartphone usage Most of the participants stated that their usage has changed for different reasons. e.g. using more apps, checking emails, news, surfing the Internet, checking SM accounts, seeking information, reading papers and PDF files, using it as a TV, listening music and playing games. As the technology developed, the usage of smartphones has increased significantly, and use of mobile apps has increased as well, so, the user will be more likely to be exposed to malware risk.

Exposure of info because of losing a phone or had it stolen Many participants in the current study indicated concerns about losing their smartphones or having them stolen.

Most participants indicated that they did not lose their phones or have them stolen. whereas some of the participants reported that they had experienced smartphone loss incidents in the past. Attitude, not deliberate action, more people used to lose their phones previously, so, this can infer that, peoples attitude toward phones is positive because less people lose their phones. So, lost a phone or have it stolen can put the user at malware risk.

It is likely that increased concern over phone loss or theft makes smartphone users more cautious to store sensitive data on their smartphones or to submit sensitive data into the apps they are using on their smartphones.

Data stored on smartphones Smartphones contain a lot of personal information ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013), making them a target for a lot of criminal attacks. Most of participants store different contents on their smartphones. e.g., photos, videos, music, emails, pdf files/ articles, pictures of their selves, families and friends from SM accounts, notes, text messages, apps, cinema codes, airline tickets/boarding pass, bank details and contact list on their smartphones. Content stored on the phones such as Emails needs Internet connection, so, it will expose the user to malware risk. Personal information and sensitive data will be at risk if the phone is lost or has been stolen and that stored on it will be disclosed to unauthorized access.

Internet access All the participants access the Internet via their smartphones for different reasons. emails, using different apps, browsing the web, YouTube, listen to music, news on BBC and read pdf files, also to check what academics do up to date, and communication with families through different SM accounts such as Instagram, Snapchat, WhatsApp, and Twitter. Internet connection, so, susceptible, and vulnerable to malware risk, the increased Internet connectivity means increased risk.

Misplacing smartphones Some of the participants interviewed in this study indicated that they have misplaced their phones before Misplacing the smartphones might expose the user to the malware risk.

Risks associated with smartphone security as shown in Table 5-4

Smartphone security

No adoption of smartphone protection mechanisms

Awareness available smartphone malicious software

Awareness of available security software

Receiving advice on information security

Sharing some content with others

Sharing personal information on smartphone

Concerns about privacy of personal data in connection with mobile phone use

Table STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 4: Risks associated with smartphone securitySource of Risk Findings Comments

Smartphone security Most of the participants consider their smartphone security is important, and they have given several reasons for that. While only one stated that he does not consider it as important.

Another participant revealed that they have a lack of awareness of how to keep themselves and their phones secure. This could be due to their lack of experience in the use of security software for this purpose.

Those who considered smartphone security important have revealed different reasons for that such as using the smartphone to store sensitive information can be very dangerous if it used by someone else, or if they get access to bank account details, they will steal a lot of sensitive data stored on it and this is a serious risk.

With the advances in smartphones and use of apps these days, most people use Internet banking apps on their smartphones, and as most mobile banking apps do not store bank details directly on the phone, but instead access it from a secure data centre. Other participants considered smartphone security important as it holds sensitive data such as bank details and will be at high risk if their account is compromised through their smartphones.

Some of the participants do not trust the smartphones, so they only use it for communicating through SM but do not use it for banking accounts or anything sensitive. Smartphone security is the protection of smartphones devices from threats associated with Internet use and it has become increasingly more important. Attitude: if they care, this is a positive attitude, if they do not consider smartphone security important, so, they have a negative attitude toward smartphone use and they will be exposed to malware risk.

No adoption of smartphone protection mechanisms Most of the participants use smartphone security mechanisms, such as passwords, lock screen, pattern lock, fingerprint lock patterns, encryption, but other features such as remote device locator or remote data wipe, multifactor authentication scheme have not mentioned by any of the participants.

Some of the participants access the apps anytime without the need for passwords. Furthermore, few participants entered the passwords of their email accounts on their smartphones, after which their email apps can be accessed at any time. For banking mobile apps, most participants who access their bank accounts using their smartphones enter their credentials each time they access their bank accounts.

Some participants stated that they do not lock the phone, but they use passcodes and passwords for the apps.

While others indicated that they use different protection mechanisms to protect themselves and their devices.

On contrast, one of the participants believe that device protection is unnecessary, and they do not use any mechanism on their smartphone which put themselves at risk or make themselves vulnerable users. Using smartphone protection mechanisms might mitigate the exposure to the risks and threats. whereas not using smartphone protection mechanisms will expose users to malware risk.

Awareness available smartphone malicious software Most of our participants are aware of the existence of smartphone malicious software (virus, worm, Trojan horse), except only one who said that he is only aware of the existence of malicious software for computers not for the smartphones.

Most of the participants revealed that they have not encountered any experience with online threat or any types of malwares on their smartphones.

On contrast, few of the participants informed that they have experienced online threat or any types of malwares on their smartphones.

However, another participant reported that they are not aware of the existence of smartphone malicious software (virus, worm, Trojan horse), he is only aware of the existence of malicious software for computers not for the smartphones. This lack of awareness of the existence of smartphone malicious software might expose the smartphone users to more online risks and threats and make them more vulnerable. Other participants indicated that they do not know whether they have experienced any malware. The awareness of smartphone malicious software might reduce the malware risk. Whereas unaware users might be more likely to be at risk.

Awareness of available security software To gain an understanding of the users general security awareness associated with smartphone usage. From the interview findings, it can be indicated that most of the smartphone users showed that they are aware of the existence of security software that is available for smartphones (e.g. antivirus, firewall). Surprisingly, only few of those who are aware of the existence of such software of the antivirus, firewall software that are available for smartphones, only few of them stated that they already in use of it.

On the other hand, some of the smartphone users in this interview declared that they are not aware of the availability of security software for the smartphones, however, they are only aware of the availability of such software only for PCs and Laptops. Few of those who are not aware of the presence and do not use security software on their smartphones, believe that installing such a software would be useful and great. Using and awareness of security software will help users to mitigate the malware risks.

Receiving advice on information security Most of the participants revealed that they have not got any advice related to the smartphone security. While some of the smartphone users declared that they have got advice on the information security. It ranges from UG security course, PRB courses, general advice not specific to smartphones. Information security awareness can mitigate the exposure to the malware risk.Sharing some content with others The ease of use and convenience of sharing contents on smartphones might motivated the smartphone users to share different contents on their smartphones. When the participants asked about this point, they have reported that they share many different things including pictures, messages, PDF files and articles, emails, SM, newspaper websites, music, and photos.

Users share images, videos to interact with others. So mainly to socialise by sending text messages and emails. Sharing some content with others can expose users to malware risk especially with strangers.Sharing personal information on smartphone Most of the participants share their personal with others. Participants on the other hand indicated that they do not share any personal data for some reasons such as it is externally dangerous and scary. Sharing personal information can expose users to malware risk.Concerns about privacy of personal data in connection with mobile phone use

Most of the participants are concerned about their personal data in connection with mobile phone use. E.g. access to the camera and the photos, and whos reading what youre sending.

Having concerns about privacy of personal data indicate that users have a positive attitude toward using smartphones. On the other hand, if users are careless about their privacy, so, they are more likely to be exposed to malware risk and they have a negative attitude toward smartphone use.Risks might encounter while installing apps on smartphones as shown in Table 5-5

Installing apps on smartphones

Use of SM apps

Pirated apps on their smartphones

Main criteria in choosing apps to download on users smartphones

The awareness of that there may be risks when installing apps

Awareness of permissions that apps ask for before app installation

Awareness that some apps may capture information on users locations

Paying attention to security messages

Paying attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process

Using GPS on the smartphoneTable STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 5: Risks might encounter while installing apps on smartphonesSource of Risk Findings Comments

Installing apps on smartphones Most of the participants reported that they install apps to their smartphones. Whereas, only one stated that he did not download apps on his smartphone as he said that to not take up space. Most of them used (1-20) apps, a few of them used about 30 apps and only one installed greater than 50 apps on their smartphones. Users who install mobile apps are more likely to be exhibited and exposed to malware risk. Especially if they install more apps from third-parties other than the trusted app stores.Use of SM apps

Different social apps are used among the participants such as: Snapchat, Twitter and Instagram, Facebook, Browser, YouTube, Google, Google maps, Skype, Imo, Telegram, Viber, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, Games app, BBC news, PILLOWTALK, Audiobooks, audible, driving and dictionary app. Notably, Facebook was the most used app among the participants, followed by Snapchat, Twitter, WhatsApp and Instagram. The participants revealed that they use different SM platforms to communicate with others. The most common platform used by the participants was Facebook. The second most common was Snapchat, followed by Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram respectively. Other platforms were represented, but they were less used. Users who SM apps on their smartphones might be at high risk as they need Internet connection to use the apps.Pirated apps on their smartphones Most of the participants did not used pirated apps in their smartphones. Only few participants have used them for reasons such as if the app version is free, from open source and limited access.

On contrast, most of the participants indicated that they have not installed any pirated apps on their smartphones for different reasons for example, some stated that they only use the known ones, do not install unknown apps as they might contain viruses, some of the smartphone users reported that they trust the AppStore and they are sure that the Apple will not them download such apps, only the original ones, whereas a few numbers of them have moral concerns that prevented them from downloading pirated apps. Users who use pirated apps on their smartphones are exposed to malware risk.

Main criteria in choosing apps to download on users smartphones The interview results revealed some app selection criteria such as: Price/cost, recommendation, developer, review, reputation, security/privacy, usefulness, usability, storage, and efficiency, safe to use.

Most of the participants revealed that they consider the cost, app reviews and app reputation, usefulness of the app/ utility/ and its rating as the main criteria that they consider when choosing apps to install on their smartphones. Significantly, most of the participants reported that they consider only known developers or app providers who they trust as the main criteria.

Importantly, both security and safety of the app, and the need for it were the choice of most of the participants. Whereas, easy to use, friends recommendations, app space, privacy were mentions by few of the participants that they consider those as important factors affecting their decision to install the app or not. Criteria in choosing apps to install on smartphone such as recommendation, developer, reading reviews, reputation, security/privacy and is it safe to use, all these criteria might mitigate the exposure to the malware risk if applied.The awareness of that there may be risks when installing apps Awareness of the risks that are maybe associated with installing apps, most participants were aware that there may be some risks when they install app on their smartphones, only one participant revealed that he thought that the App store is safe.

Some participants revealed that they are aware of the risks associated with the app installation, but they have not experienced any issues with the apps that they installed.

Other participants revealed that they trust the app developer such Play store and they think that the app is safe, and they do not think that there might be a risk when they install apps from them.

On contrast, only one participant revealed that he thought that the App store is safe and that they were not aware of any risks that might encounter users when they install apps on the smartphone.

Regarding the experiences of the participants, the findings reported that few numbers of the participants have experienced some issues while they are using some of the apps. Some of the participants found that the app was not working efficiently, and some found that these are unwanted/ invasive apps after the have installed them. Also, some found that the app does freeze or stopped their phone which made them uninstall theses apps.

Participants have reported that they uninstall, delete, or remove the app from their smartphones when such thing happened.

Some participants had deleted an app as they found that they are not useful or was not working. The awareness of that there may be risks when installing apps on the smartphones might reduce the likelihood of exposure to malware risk. How the user interacts with these issues if faced will mitigate/increase the likelihood of exposure to malware risk.Awareness of permissions that apps ask for before app installation All the participants in this interview have stated that they are aware that the apps will ask for permissions while the installation process. If the users are aware that apps ask for permissions, this might help to mitigate the risk.Awareness that some apps may capture information on users locations all of them stated that they are aware of that. Most of them stated that this concerns them, and this was for different reasons. For example, privacy, violation of privacy, threatening privacy distraction, exposure, upsetting. While others do not think that tracking is a risk factor. Users awareness that some phone apps may capture information on users location might mitigate the likelihood of exposure to malware risk. If the user is concerned about this point, so, they might be less likely to be vulnerable to malware risks.Paying attention to security messages Most participants stated that they do pay attention to security messages that appear during the app installation process on their smartphones, whereas only few stated that they do not pay attention to these messages. Users who pay attention to security messages during the app installation process have a positive attitude toward smartphone use. On the other hand, users who do not pay attention to such security messages might be exposed to security risks. So, users are encouraged not to ignore security messages during app installation process.Paying attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process Most of the participants revealed that they do not pay attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process on their smartphones.

Some of the participants stated that they agree licensing agreements without reading it as they have no choice, and as they are too long so they skip some of these messages without paying any attention to them. Some said that they consider reviews before agreeing. Users who pay attention to licensing agreements during the app installation process have a positive attitude toward smartphone use. On the other hand, ignoring licensing agreements that appear during app installation process might expose users to malware risk.Using GPS on the smartphone Most of the participants turn off GPS on their smartphones. And that was for many different reasons such as battery life, for privacy and do not want to reveal their locations. Some indicated that they let some apps access their locations such as fitness apps and maps for travel times.

Most of the participants stated that they turn off GPS as it consumes battery, drains battery, preserve battery.

While most other reasons for turning off GPS were that users do not like that apps know their locations, and they do not want to reveal their locations and to keep their locations private. Users who turn GPS off on their smartphones have a positive attitude toward smartphone use. So, they might be less likely to be exposed to malware risk. So, turning GPS on all the time might help exposure of users locations and lead to malware risks.Risks associated with friendship on smartphones and sharing contents as shown in Table 5-6

Friendship on smartphones and sharing contents

Table STYLEREF 1 s 5 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 6: Risks associated with friendship on smartphones and sharing contentsSource of Risk Findings Comments

Friendship on smartphones and sharing contents. Most participants stated that they were interested in sharing their contents with their friends or with the people or those who shared the same interests. Users who do not share contents from their smartphones with people you have not met personally have a positive attitude toward smartphone use. Sharing contents with strangers will make the user vulnerable and suspectable to malware risk.SummaryThis chapter presented the analysis of the interviews which were conducted as part of the mixed-methods approach. The qualitative study has shown that smartphone users have a basic awareness of the risks associated with their devices (smartphones) that expose them to malware risks; however, it also revealed some important risk-related issues to the low adoption of Secsoft and security mechanisms such as multifactor authentication.

Although users showed an awareness of Secsoft such as antivirus software, and firewall software for smartphones, few of them have the experience of installing such software on their smartphones. Awareness towards the risks of smartphones was also found when sharing personal information where few participants were concerned about sharing their personal data and most of others consider some criteria before they install apps such as: price, recommendation, developer, reviews, reputation, security/privacy, usefulness, usability, storage, and efficiency. Within which they consider only known developers or app providers as a main criterion for security and safety such as: Google app, and apple store in downloading apps like: Snapchat, Twitter, and Instagram, Facebook, Browser, YouTube, Google, Google maps, Skype, Imo, Telegram, Viber, WhatsApp, Linkedin, Games app, BBC news, Pillowtalk, Audio-books, audible, driving, and dictionary app for communicational, social, employment, entertainment, and educational purposes. Facebook (Meta) was found as the first most used platform followed by Snapchat as a second, then Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram respectively. Interestingly, most of them did not use pirated apps on their smartphones.

Some of the participants have learned smartphone security mechanisms through some courses at university and used: passwords, screen locker, fingerprints, and encryption; however, remote device locator or remote data wipe, and multifactor authentication scheme have not been mentioned by any of the participants.

Although most participants showed awareness toward the risks before installing any apps along with awareness toward permissions asked before downloading them and paying attention to security messages that appear during the app installation process, some of them have experienced some issues. Whereas others consider reviews before installing apps and do not pay attention to licensing agreements and they also experienced issues.

Most participants are aware and concerned that some apps may capture information on their locations, so they turn off the GPS because it is part of their privacy, and do not want to reveal their locations. However, others turn it off to gain battery life, and few of them were not concerned because they believe that tracking is not a risk factor. Participants are interested in sharing their content with friends; however, they do not share any content with people they have not met personally or with strangers.

Regarding parental control, some parents were setting some rules for their childrens smartphone usage due to health reasons and checking their locations all the time. Consequently, there was a concern that parental control should not be intrusive. Whereas most of them did not have any rules in the past on their mobile phone usage by their parents. And they have not had any disagreements with their parents about their mobile phone usage.

Overall smartphone users were exposed to risk in everyday life and can experience risks when accessing their privacy by not considering security.

They show risky behaviour when they thought that smartphone security is not important and have not adopted any of smartphone protection mechanisms. Also, when some of them were not aware of available smartphone malicious software. Awareness of available security software, receiving advice on information security, sharing some content with others and when sharing personal information on smartphones. They show good awareness when they were concerned about the privacy of personal data in connection with mobile phone use.

Installing apps on smartphones and using SM apps showed that participants are exposed to risks.

Chapter 6: DiscussionIntroductionThis chapter discusses the findings comprehensively. This chapter will combine the survey and interview results, then assess how well they contribute to addressing the research questions. Later in this chapter, it reviews the main findings.

The study adopted mixed-method to explore the effect of the demographic factors on security awareness: knowledge, experience, and behaviour of school and university students. In the current study, a mixed-method qualitative and quantitative methodology was used to investigate the effect of the demographic factors age, gender and level of education" and related security awareness towards smartphone use.

This study tried to answer the main research questions addressed in the context of the smartphone as follows:

RQ1: To what extent demographic factors can influence security awareness in smartphone use?

RQ2: What are the most important variables that may influence users security awareness in smartphone usage?

RQ3: To what degree smartphone users behaviour expose to online risk?

And based on Figuare 2-2, the results will be discussed as follows:

General information related to phone type and ownership of smartphones by gender, age, and level of education.

The study focused on the security awareness of smartphones, and it has indicated that most of the participants own a smartphone, this result is confirmed by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Silver</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>214</RecNum><DisplayText>(Silver et al., 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>214</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">214</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Silver, Laura</author><author>Smith, Aaron</author><author>Johnson, Courtney</author><author>Taylor, Kyle</author><author>Jiang, Jingjing</author><author>Anderson, Monica</author><author>Rainie, Lee</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile connectivity in emerging economies</title><secondary-title>Pew Research Center</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pew Research Center</full-title></periodical><volume>7</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Silver et al., 2019) who stated that most of the adults surveyed report owning their smartphone. According to the findings of (Alfawareh & Jusoh, 2014) most users owned a smartphone and used them as a daily mobile, a mini-computer with access to the Internet, and digital cameras.

The current study indicated that there were differences in the type of owned smartphone among males and females, females were more inclined to have iPhone devices than males, whereas more males were likely to own Android devices. A similar result was reported previously by studies PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Lcml0aGlrYTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTM8L1llYXI+

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Krithika & Vasantha, 2013; Lee et al., 2014; Van Deursen et al., 2015) indicate that there are differences in smartphone access among males and females. The qualitative study part of the current research supported the quantitative results as males were more likely to own Android whereas females showed more interest in iPhones.

Yes, it is an Android. P1, Male. Yes, I have an iPhone. P4, Female.

From the qualitative study, the male was interested in Android whereas females are more interested in iPhones. Females were interested in iPhones for different reasons such as trust and the effortless usage there such type of phone is perceived to be highly secured and easy to use. Furthermore, Android was chosen mostly by males because it is less expensive and they have highlighted that Android devices have also advanced features that they like such as larger screen size, and better quality of the camera.

Yes, usually I would go for a big brand that has the most share of the market. So, these days I think it is iPhone or Android. Mainly because they have better functionality of their phones, band better maintenance over the long-term usage. My criteria for picking the phone, I think mainly was the ease of use. iPhones are easy-to-use and you learn very quickly how to use them. And the maintenance. P4, Female.

It is an iPhone 5. Yeah, about the quality of the camera because I am taking a lot of photos and using them for my social media accounts. so, I consider the camera and the price P17, Female.

Whereas males showed their interest in Android for different reasons such as price and decent battery life.

Price, that was like the most important factor, so I did not want to spend too much on it. And this one was one of the cheapest phones. Also, battery life was quite important for me so this one had decent battery life. I think as it lasts for 2 days which is quite good - very for a phone and price, it was not expensive. P6, Male.

Additionally, both quantitative and qualitative results illustrated that there are just two operating systems that are currently dominating the smartphone market: Apple iOS and Android, with all other operating systems making up a small minority, and this was reported by (Bagga et al., 2017) and in line with another study which reported that with respective usage rates of 36.1% and 60%, iOS and Android are the two most popular platforms (Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019).

Furthermore, Andone et al., (2016), reported that gender is a significant factor in the ownership of the phone type. In 2020, Statista reported that Apple and Samsung are among the most owned brands in the UK. These results were in accordance with the current study as clearly the Android and Apple iPhones were the most used smartphones. Also, these results are in constant with a finding of Bagga, et al., (2017) who stated that it is worth noting that Android and iOS combined accounted for about 95% of all respondents, indicating that there are only two companies in the smartphone market and that these two operating systems have dominated the market. Moreover, reports published by Statista in 2020, illustrated the results of a survey conducted by the Mobile Ecosystem Forum showing that 51% of the survey were females who owned Apple smartphones, whereas males showed an interest in Android devices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Research</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>55</RecNum><DisplayText>(Research, 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>55</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">55</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mobile Ecosystem Forum; On Device Research</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone user gender distribution by manufacturer 2019</title></titles><volume>2021</volume><number>30/06/2021</number><dates><year>2020</year></dates><publisher>Mobile Ecosystem Forum</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.statista.com/statistics/1132583/smartphone-users-by-gender/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Research, 2020).

Furthermore, the present study indicated that the phone type was influenced by age. The younger generation 12-16 years old (56.5%) were most likely to own iPhones, followed by 32.7% who stated that they are using Android. Whereas the middle generation 17-21 (54.8%) preferred Android OS, and 41.4% used iPhones. Users with an age greater than 22 years old (61.9%) opt for Android OS, whereas (38.1%) desire iPhone.

Additionally, small percentages of younger participants less than 22 showed an interest in Windows and Symbian platforms. However, none of the participants aged 22 or greater used any of the last two platforms. Comparable results reported by Payments Journal by Mercator Advisory Groups information in 2020 illustrated that smartphone types influenced by age groups with iOS have a strong lead among 18-34 years old: just more than a half of users use iPhone whereas (42%) of the participants used Android ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Reville</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>56</RecNum><DisplayText>(Reville, 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>56</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">56</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Peter Reville</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Technology and Fraud: Consumer Concern Is Real</title></titles><volume>2021</volume><number>01/05/2021</number><dates><year>2020</year></dates><publisher>Mercator Advisory Groups </publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.mercatoradvisorygroup.com/product/north-american-paymentsinsights-u-s-technology-and-fraud-consumer-concern-is-real/</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Reville, 2020). These results highlight that although there are many types of phones in the market, the common ownership is only between the Android and iPhone.

This raises the question of why smartphone users preferred using either Android or iPhone platforms? Also, it raises the point of why younger generations prefer to use iPhones more than Android. This may be because younger generations can get their smartphone from their families, so, possibly families prefer iPhones as they have a good reputation. Or it could be that older users within the survey population preferred Android phones, whereas younger teenagers showed that they mostly prefer iPhone-based devices. However, this may require further study to find an answer.

Furthermore, most of the participants think that mobile phones tell others who they are and where are they. Whereas few of the participants revealed that they do not think that mobile phones tell others about their details. The present study indicated that the owned phone type was influenced by age. The younger generation owned the phones at an earlier age, they owned iPhone OS compared to the older generation who preferred Android OS.

In terms of the level of education, this study indicated that level of education is an influential factor influencing the ownership of the smartphone type; it was found that there is a significant difference across the academic levels. School users use iPhone OS more than university users, whereas the verity users prefer Android platforms. This can be because younger generations can get their smartphone from their families, so, possibly families prefer iPhones as they have a good reputation.

It can be concluded that this might all down to marketing as iPhone and Android both are well-known and globally trusted companies. iPhone company as an example when they produce a new phone generation, they take into their consideration the younger generation in terms of producing an attractive colourful phone have small differences comparing to the more advanced ones. Also, it might be down to the fact that females follow the trend to have the most up-to-date phone. This may answer the question of why the younger generation has a higher level of owning an iPhone. Also, iPhone is a user-friendly device and possibly that is why females prefer it. Femalesfrequently select smartphones with simple and easy to use functions. Many usersbelieve that iOS is the most user-friendly and well-known mobile operating system for females, who frequently use smartphones to chat, browse the web, snap photos, or play games.

As Apples OS and its devices are inseparable, they have much more control over how they interact. Although iOS devices features are more restricted than Android devices, the iPhones integrated design creates security vulnerabilities far less common and difficult to find ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Markuson</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>352</RecNum><DisplayText>(Markuson, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>352</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667691305">352</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Daniel Markuson </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android vs. iOS: security comparison 2022</title></titles><dates><year>2022</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://nordvpn.com/blog/ios-vs-android-security/#:~:text=iOS%20security%20focuses%20more%20on,you%20take%20your%20own%20precautions.</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Markuson, 2022).

Smartphone users knowledge This study investigated gender, age, and level of education differences. Also, the study has defined smartphone security awareness by considering experience as an important factor along with knowledge, attitude, and behaviour. Combining smartphones and the Internet gives people access to a variety of features that keep them connected to their communities, such as using a messenger app to send texts, calling someone online, watching videos, listening to music, following a GPS, and using social networking platforms ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kumar</Author><RecNum>9</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kumar &amp; Arulchelvan)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>9</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1608369881">9</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kumar, J Dinesh</author><author>Arulchelvan, S</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Attitude towards Smartphones and its Influence on Process, Social and Compulsive Usage</title></titles><dates></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kumar & Arulchelvan).

The multi-feature aspects of smartphones allowed all ages to access them equally. However, many studies have found significant changes in usage patterns concerning gender and age PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LYW5nPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNDwvWWVhcj48UmVj

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Kang & Jung, 2014; Kumar & Arulchelvan; Van Deursen et al., 2015).

Gender and level of education differences in knowledge of threats

The present study found that there were significant gender differences in the users knowledge of taking steps to keep themselves safe from cyber risks such as bullying, and unwanted messages. Whereas no significant gender difference was found in the users awareness of what they do with their old phones across the two genders either keep their old phones, sell them, give them away or throw them away and clear their browsing history on their smartphones. Furthermore, the current study reported that there was no significant gender difference in the users awareness that there may be risks when they install mobile apps on their smartphones across the two genders, in users awareness that that apps ask for permissions before installing some mobile apps on their smartphones, in receiving any advice about online security across the two genders, nor in avoiding an app rather than sharing their personal information across the two genders.

However, security dangers in apps go beyond permissions; researchers discovered that 97% of all analysed apps had privacy flaws. They also found that 86% of the apps lacked fundamental security measures. In addition, 75% of them incorrectly encrypt data.

Similar percentages throughout the millions of choices in app stores suggest that users may have some privacy or security concerns floating about their smartphones (Sceuritysense).

Additionally, the present study reported that there was a significant gender difference in the users awareness of turning off GPS on their smartphones for safety. Females were more likely to turn off the GPS on their smartphones for safety purposes. In contrast, in a previous study, females disclose more personal information on their SM sites than males in a variety of categories ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Towner</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>335</RecNum><DisplayText>(Towner et al., 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>335</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666255759">335</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Towner, Emily</author><author>Grint, Jennifer</author><author>Levy, Tally</author><author>Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne</author><author>Tomova, Livia</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Revealing the self in a digital world: a systematic review of adolescent online and offline self-disclosure</title><secondary-title>Current Opinion in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Current Opinion in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>101309</pages><dates><year>2022</year></dates><isbn>2352-250X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Towner et al., 2022).

However, it was also found that there were no significant gender differences in having concerns about neither users personal information and privacy nor revealing users current locations in connection with their phone use across the two genders. Although, previous report indicated that females are more vulnerable to privacy abuses and violations ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hoy</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>132</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hoy &amp; Milne, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>132</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">132</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hoy, Mariea Grubbs</author><author>Milne, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Gender differences in privacy-related measures for young adult Facebook users</title><secondary-title>Journal of interactive advertising</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of interactive advertising</full-title></periodical><pages>28-45</pages><volume>10</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><isbn>1525-2019</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hoy & Milne, 2010). The qualitative results confirm this as follow:

I am quite scared of it, to be honest, I am quite nervous about it. But because I do not know how dangerous it is I have not, it has not prevented me from sharing information sometimes, but when I do, I do feel a bit unsure about it. P11, Female

Academic level groups were used to investigate the differences in knowledge of threats. A significant difference was found in the users awareness of clearing browsing history on their smartphones across. Smartphone users at the university level were likely to clear their browsing history compared to school-aged users. University students were more likely to turn off the GPS features in comparison to school students. They turn off GPS on their smartphones for different reasons such as battery life, for privacy and do not want to reveal their locations.

Some indicated that they let some apps access their locations such as fitness apps and maps for travel times. However, most of the participants stated that they turn off GPS as it consumes battery, drains the battery, preserves battery. While most other reasons for turning off GPS were that users do not like that apps know their locations, and they do not want to reveal their locations and keep their locations private.

Another interesting point is that the current research also showed that there were significant differences in the users awareness of taking steps to keep themselves safe from online threats such as unwanted messages and bullying across academic level groups, school-aged students were more likely to keep themselves safe from online threats than university students.

Nevertheless, educational levels have not influenced smartphone users on what they do with their old phones either keep their old phones, sell them, give them away or throw them away. Also, educational levels did not have any influence neither on the users awareness that there may be risks when they install apps on their smartphones, the users knowledge that apps ask for permissions, receiving advice about online security, or the users knowledge of avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information.

Gender and level of education differences in knowledge of parental monitoring roles in reducing threats

Parents can play a positive role by actively supervising and monitoring online activities or by setting restrictions on what their children do.Parents can discover if their children are participating in cyberbullying by watching, directing, or even controlling what they do online. The use of technology and online access can also be restricted and controlled by parents as shown in ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Baldry</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>309</RecNum><DisplayText>(Baldry et al., 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>309</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666177515">309</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Baldry, Anna Costanza</author><author>Sorrentino, Anna</author><author>Farrington, David P</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cyberbullying and cybervictimization versus parental supervision, monitoring and control of adolescents&apos; online activities</title><secondary-title>Children and Youth Services Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Children and Youth Services Review</full-title></periodical><pages>302-307</pages><volume>96</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>0190-7409</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Baldry et al., 2019).

A significant difference in the users awareness of how much they think that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones was found across the two genders. More females reported that their parents were more likely to know a lot about what they do on their phones, whereas more males stated that their parents know a little or nothing about what they do on their phones. Females reported their parents checking their phones whereas males stated that their parents did not do so. In addition, no significant gender difference was found in the users awareness of whether they mind that their parents check their phones without their knowledge across the two genders.

Participants were questioned on a range of topics, including their thoughts about and adherence to their parents smartphone-related rules. The present study highlighted that there was a significant difference in the users awareness of whether their parents check their smartphones, how much they think that their parents know regarding what they do on their smartphones and in the users knowledge of how much they think that their parents know about what they do on their smartphones across academic level groups.

In addition, most smartphone users in this study stated that they did not have any rules in the past on their mobile phone usage by their parents. Only one of the participants stated that because the technology has changed, now the user can access anything, but before no, also, there was limited access to the Internet and the connection was not as good as today. Another participant indicated that they have not got any rules as their contract was paid as you go, so, they could not run up huge bills, and that they know that their parents were relaxed. Some of the participants stated that there were not any rules on their phone usage as their first phones were not smart, so, they just made calls and text messages.

The findings of this study found that some parents were setting some rules on their childrens mobile phone usage for health reasons such as sleeping problems and addiction. Some parents have put some rules on their childs phone usage for different reasons; to check where they are all the time. Other parents would not give mobiles to their children until they are eligible to age as the users stated, for example until they are at university, so, they can make sure that they are mature enough to have a mobile phone. Another reason for putting some rules was that the parent was paying for the contract, so, there was a limit on how they can use calls and text messages. Other parents have put some rules on their childs computer or laptop more than on a smartphone.

When children begin using SM and the Internet around the age of nine, parents need to exercise extra caution. Children often do not become obsessed with apps, and their enthusiasm for a new app begins to wane after a few hours. As long as it does not interfere with their daily routine, children's usage of smartphones as an extension of their learning and play should be seen as a normal aspect of their development.

It is now widely accepted that, regardless of their financial situation, information and communication technology helps to give greater educational possibilities for children ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rideout</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>326</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rideout &amp; Katz, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>326</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666181375">326</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rideout, Victoria</author><author>Katz, Vikki S</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Opportunity for all? Technology and learning in lower-income families</title><secondary-title>Joan ganz cooney center at sesame workshop</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2016</year></dates><publisher>ERIC</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Rideout & Katz, 2016). We think, as academics and computer scientists, that smartphones are secure when used with the right apps. They may even be somewhat good for kids, but only provided they are not abused or used excessively ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yadav</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>327</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yadav &amp; Chakraborty, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>327</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666181504">327</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yadav, Savita</author><author>Chakraborty, Pinaki</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using smartphones with suitable apps can be safe and even useful if they are not misused or overused</title><secondary-title>Acta Paediatrica</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Acta Paediatrica</full-title></periodical><pages>384-387</pages><volume>107</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0803-5253</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Yadav & Chakraborty, 2018).

When enabling youngsters to use smartphone apps, caution must be taken. Children may require adult assistance to limit their usage of screens because they can be seduced by them. A youngster should not spend more than two hours per day using any form of screen media, including television and computers. Rules need to be established by parents, like not allowing kids to keep smartphones in their rooms at night or use them during meals or for an hour before bed. Before introducing apps to their children, parents should test them out first ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yadav</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>327</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yadav &amp; Chakraborty, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>327</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666181504">327</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yadav, Savita</author><author>Chakraborty, Pinaki</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using smartphones with suitable apps can be safe and even useful if they are not misused or overused</title><secondary-title>Acta Paediatrica</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Acta Paediatrica</full-title></periodical><pages>384-387</pages><volume>107</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0803-5253</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Yadav & Chakraborty, 2018).

According to a survey of American parents and their teenagers, the findings found that 78% were not allowing mobile devices during family meals nor night-time with 63% ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lauricella</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>321</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lauricella et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>321</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180563">321</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lauricella, Alexis R</author><author>Cingel, Drew P</author><author>Beaudoin-Ryan, Leanne</author><author>Robb, Michael B</author><author>Saphir, Melissa</author><author>Wartella, Ellen A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Common Sense census: Plugged-in parents of tweens and teens</title><secondary-title>San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lauricella et al., 2016). According to the results, parents who are really concerned about screen time of their children are more inclined to limit their childrens use of screen time. According to findings from other studies, parents apply similar restraints to manage their kids technology use PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CbGFja3dlbGw8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDE2PC9ZZWFy

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blackwell et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2019; Mazmanian & Lanette, 2017; Wisniewski et al., 2017). Given that ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hiniker</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>320</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hiniker et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>320</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180376">320</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hiniker, Alexis</author><author>Schoenebeck, Sarita Y</author><author>Kientz, Julie A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Not at the dinner table: Parents&apos; and children&apos;s perspectives on family technology rules</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 19th ACM conference on computer-supported cooperative work &amp; social computing</secondary-title></titles><pages>1376-1389</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hiniker et al., 2016) observed that involving kids in the rule-setting process enhanced their buy-in and commitment to obeying regulations, this strategy might counter parents own objectives.

Teenagers believe that their parents do not fully comprehend their online activities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Blackwell</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>322</RecNum><DisplayText>(Blackwell et al., 2016; Kim &amp; Davis, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>322</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180700">322</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Blackwell, Lindsay</author><author>Gardiner, Emma</author><author>Schoenebeck, Sarita</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Managing expectations: Technology tensions among parents and teens</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work &amp; Social Computing</secondary-title></titles><pages>1390-1401</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kim</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>318</RecNum><record><rec-number>318</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180113">318</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kim, Ada S</author><author>Davis, Katie</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Tweens perspectives on their parents media-related attitudes and rules: an exploratory study in the US</title><secondary-title>Journal of Children and Media</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Children and Media</full-title></periodical><pages>358-366</pages><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1748-2798</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Blackwell et al., 2016; Kim & Davis, 2017). They dislike limitations like parental controls because they consider them to be an invasion of their privacy ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ghosh</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>319</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ghosh et al., 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>319</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180251">319</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ghosh, Arup Kumar</author><author>Badillo-Urquiola, Karla</author><author>Guha, Shion</author><author>LaViola Jr, Joseph J</author><author>Wisniewski, Pamela J</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Safety vs. surveillance: what children have to say about mobile apps for parental control</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-14</pages><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ghosh et al., 2018). They think that many of the regulations their parents set are inappropriate for their real usage of technology ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hiniker</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>320</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hiniker et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>320</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180376">320</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hiniker, Alexis</author><author>Schoenebeck, Sarita Y</author><author>Kientz, Julie A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Not at the dinner table: Parents&apos; and children&apos;s perspectives on family technology rules</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 19th ACM conference on computer-supported cooperative work &amp; social computing</secondary-title></titles><pages>1376-1389</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hiniker et al., 2016). When parents breach their own norms, such using their phones at the dinner table, it aggravates teenagers even more ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Blackwell</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>322</RecNum><DisplayText>(Blackwell et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>322</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666180700">322</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Blackwell, Lindsay</author><author>Gardiner, Emma</author><author>Schoenebeck, Sarita</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Managing expectations: Technology tensions among parents and teens</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work &amp; Social Computing</secondary-title></titles><pages>1390-1401</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Davis</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>325</RecNum><record><rec-number>325</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666181186">325</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Davis, Katie</author><author>Dinhopl, Anja</author><author>Hiniker, Alexis</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>&quot; Everything&apos;s the Phone&quot; Understanding the Phone&apos;s Supercharged Role in Parent-Teen Relationships</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-14</pages><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Blackwell et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2019).

Additionally, the current study indicated that most of the participants revealed that they have not had any disagreement with their parents about their mobile phone usage. Only a few participants had some disagreements with their parents. Whereas few others stated that it is not OK for parents to monitor their childrens mobile phone usage. However, there was a concern that parental control should not be intrusive.

I guess as a teenager you know like when you want to have your independence and maybe youre with your friends and your mom is like calling you all the time to check and know where you are. So, then yeah probably I told my mom a few times that I think like shes overly protective. P6, Male.

Age groups differences in knowledge of threats

No effect was found on age groups of smartphone users with what they do with their old phones either keep their them, sell them, give them away or throw them away. Whereas the current study inclined that there was a significant difference in the users knowledge of clearing browsing histories on users smartphones between age groups. Younger generations were more likely to clear their browsing histories in comparison to older generations. Similarly, according to a research by Boyles et al. (2012), 32% of all phone users have deleted their phones browsing history, as have 44% of phone users between the ages of 18 and 24 and 36% of those between the ages of 45 and 54. Older users are far less likely to engage in this behaviour; 17% of those between the ages of 55 and 64 (and 11% of those 65 and older) have done so.

The present study also found that there were significant age differences in the users knowledge of taking steps to keep users safe from online threats such as bullying, and unwanted messages on their smartphones between age groups. Younger users are inclined to take steps to keep safe from online threats, such as bullying, and unwanted messages on their smartphones more than older users.

In addition, the current study found that there were no age significant differences in the users knowledge that there may be risks when they install mobile apps on their smartphones, from apps asking for permissions before being installed on smartphones, to receiving any advice about online security, in the users awareness of avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information across the age groups.

Furthermore, there was a significant difference in the users awareness of turning off the GPS for safety on users smartphones between different age groups. Older users were inclined to turn off the GPS feature on their smartphones for safety more than users who are aged less than 22. So, users aged 22 or older might be more careful in using GPS on their smartphones than younger users.

All age groups had concerns about their privacy, personal information, or revealing users current locations in connection with their phone use across the age groups. This is in accordance with a study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Boyles</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>330</RecNum><DisplayText>(Boyles et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>330</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666182023">330</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Boyles, Jan Lauren</author><author>Smith, Aaron</author><author>Madden, Mary</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Privacy and data management on mobile devices</title><secondary-title>Pew Internet &amp; American Life Project</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pew internet &amp; American life project</full-title></periodical><pages>1-19</pages><volume>4</volume><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Boyles et al., 2012) who noted that 32% of users between the ages of 25 and 34 have turned off location tracking out of concern for their personal information, compared to just 4% of users 65 and older. Concerns about location tracking are higher among users in the age range of 25 to 35.

Age group differences in knowledge of parental monitoring roles to reduce threats

The present study stated that there was a significant difference in the users knowledge of whether their parents check how they use their smartphones between different age groups. Young teenagers are monitored by their parents as they might be more vulnerable to some smartphone usage risks. Young smartphone users reported that their parents know a lot. Whereas older smartphone users reported that their parents have no idea about what they do with their phones. So, the young generation might be monitored and controlled more by their parents as they might be vulnerable to some smartphone usage risks. Additionally, older generations reported that they would mind if their parents checked their smartphones without their consent. Younger generations were more likely to be monitored by their parents.

Smartphone users experienceGender and level of education differences in smartphone users experience The current research showed that there was no significant differences in the users experience of duration of owning a smartphone, losing or having their smartphones stolen, receiving any pictures from people in contact on their smartphones messages, receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones and as well as in receiving any content from other people that they found upsetting, bullying or offensive their smartphones across the two genders.

Significant differences were found in the users experience of the duration of owning a smartphone across the academic level groups. So, it can be concluded that users at the university level within the survey population have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for a long time, whereas school pupils have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for lesser years. This conclusion is logical and can be true in the reality.

In addition, a significant difference in the users experience of receiving any pictures from people in contact on their smartphones was found across academic level groups. So, university smartphone users were more likely to receive pictures from people in their contacts on their smartphones.

Also, a significant difference was found in the users experience of receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones across academic level groups. University students were more likely to send/ receive any messages or photos from/to contacts users that they do not personally know than school students as they might contact other people. The current study showed that there were no significant differences in the users experience of losing or having their smartphones stolen across the two levels of education.

Age group differences in smartphone users experience

In terms of age group, significant differences were found in the users experience of the duration of owning a smartphone across the age groups. The older users within the survey population have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for longer times, whereas younger teenagers have owned their first Internet-enabled phone for less than a year. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant age difference in users experience of receiving any pictures from people in users contacts between two different age groups (12-16, 17-21) and (12-16, 22). Older generations were receiving pictures from people in their contact lists more than the younger generation. Whereas there was no statistically significant difference between those who are (17-21) and (22). The current study also revealed that there were significant differences in the experience of users in receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts that user do not know personally on users smartphones between age groups (12-16, 17-21). More users who are aged (17-21) are inclined to receive/ send messages or photos from/to contacts that they do not know personally on their smartphones, more than users who are aged less than 17. So, clearly, it can be said that older teenagers were more motivated to receive/ send messages or photos from/to strangers other than the users in the other age groups. And there was no significant difference between those who are (17-21, 22). On the other hand, the current study showed that there were no significant differences in the users experience of losing or having their smartphones stolen across the age groups.

Most smartphone users in all different groups were inclined not to receive/ send any content from other users which found upsetting, offensive, or bullying on their smartphones. So, young teenagers and older teenagers in all age groups might be cautious enough when they are sending or receiving content on their smartphones. And this indicates that smartphone users in our study might be less vulnerable to risks of bullying, and sexting.

Smartphone users behaviourGender and level of education differences in smartphone users behaviour In this part, researchers tested the effect of the demographic factors on the behaviour of users of smartphones, the study revealed that users smartphone usage behaviour differs significantly between genders, age groups and levels of education. In this study, user behaviour is defined as the steps that were taken by the user to reduce the probability of being attacked or being exposed to attacks. Also, the measures were carried out by a user when encountering a security risk. Therefore, the first question being considered was (what is the most use of the smartphone). There were no significant differences in the behaviour of users in terms of what they mostly use or install mobile apps on smartphones for across the different age groups, and levels of education groups, for either entertainment, contacting their friends or visiting websites. In contrast, studies by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sama</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>314</RecNum><DisplayText>(Sama, 2020; Taywade &amp; Khubalkar, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>314</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666178838">314</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sama, Afsana A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Gender differences in smartphone usage patterns of adolescents</title><secondary-title>Int J Res Anal Rev</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Int J Res Anal Rev</full-title></periodical><pages>355-62</pages><volume>7</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Taywade</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>245</RecNum><record><rec-number>245</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">245</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Taywade, Aachal</author><author>Khubalkar, Rupashree</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Gender differences in smartphone usage patterns of adolescents</title><secondary-title>The International Journal of Indian Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The International Journal of Indian Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>516-523</pages><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2019</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Sama, 2020; Taywade & Khubalkar, 2019) found that in comparison to males, femalesused social networking sites, entertainment apps, and security features of smartphones more frequently. Males use smartphone gaming and online shopping apps more frequently than females do.

I bought it purely just to stay in touch with people to be a bit more accessible and also I use it for music and the Internet and that sort of thing P3, Male.

Mainly because I wanted to access the Internet; because I am an international student; so, I need to contact my family back home, so I need Internet access to get maybe ship or calls and also to use other social media programs such as Facebook and Viber and so on P16, Female.

There were gender differences in the behaviour of users in installing some mobile apps, whereas no significant differences were found in installing other apps across both genders. Gender differences were found in installing Snapchat, Skype and ooVoo apps on their smartphones. Females installed Snap Chat, and ooVoo apps more, while males used Skype more than females. The interview results found that most of the users reported that they install mobile apps on their own smartphones. Most of them used (1-20) apps, while a few of them stated that they use about 30 apps and only one installed greater than 50 apps on their smartphones. A similar result was recorded by Alani, (2017)found that 74.35% of the participants have less than 50 apps installed on their smartphones.

Roughly, so, theres probably about 30. About, yea I think theres about 10. no, theres 20 on the screen, about right yea, yea. But most of them are ones I do not use. P9, Male.

The current study participants were found to use several apps and their usage depend on their need for example Snapchat, Twitter and Instagram, Facebook for social purpose, and use browser, YouTube, Google, Google maps, Skype, Imo, Telegram, Viber, WhatsApp, LinkedIn for social, education and employment whereas Games app, BBC news, Pillowtalk app, Audiobooks, audible, driving and dictionary app was used for education and entertainment. Similar results were recorded by (Anshari et al., 2016).

Age group differences in smartphone users behaviourThere was a significant age difference between the groups in downloading some smartphone apps installing Snapchat, WhatsApp, ooVoo, Messenger, and Omegle mobile apps. Whereas no differences were reported on the other apps such as Skype, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Azar and Chatroulette apps. According to smartphone usage survey in the UK of adults aged 17 to 49 years old, individuals frequently used smartphones, especially the WhatsApp function, to share their difficulties with their peers. People between the ages of 16 and 24 were found to be more likely to use SM platforms like Facebook and Twitter. Also, young age adults like to watch movies on YouTube and play video games on the Internet (Anshari et al., 2016). Similar results were published previously and indicated that app use in education has become very popular in many countries for a broad range of purposes, including teaching and research PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Nb3JhdmVjPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNTwvWWVhcj48

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Al-Emran & Shaalan, 2015; Ebiye, 2015; Kim et al., 2015; Maazer Al Fawareh & Jusoh, 2017; Moravec et al., 2015; Shaw & Tan, 2015; Vzquez-Cano, 2014). Nowadays, many users use educational apps to help in their studies. It has been demonstrated that these apps can improve students performance and learning process satisfaction ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Tao</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>145</RecNum><DisplayText>(Tao &amp; Edmunds, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>145</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">145</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Tao, Kungpo</author><author>Edmunds, Paulette</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile APPs and global markets</title><secondary-title>Theoretical Economics Letters</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Theoretical Economics Letters</full-title></periodical><pages>1510</pages><volume>8</volume><number>08</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Tao & Edmunds, 2018). Furthermore, a survey found that 97% of the users used their smartphones WhatsApp for communication ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Anshari</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>360</RecNum><DisplayText>(Anshari &amp; Alas, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>360</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667996758">360</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Anshari, Muhammad</author><author>Alas, Yabit</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphones habits, necessities, and big data challenges</title><secondary-title>The Journal of High Technology Management Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Journal of High Technology Management Research</full-title></periodical><pages>177-185</pages><volume>26</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1047-8310</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Anshari & Alas, 2015).

Not very many, I use regularly, I have WhatsApp, YouTube app, BBC news app, audiobooks, I listen to audiobooks on my phone. So, I have maybe 7-10 apps I use regularly, Facebook, Google, and Google maps, these are the most used apps. I do have Facebook, and Twitter, those are only the social apps. P8, Male.

I have Facebook, Facebook messenger, and WhatsApp, but I do not allow my WhatsApp to store my data P15, Female.

There was a statistically significant difference in the contacts number on users smartphones between two different age groups and levels of education. And there was a statistically significant difference in the number of contacts on users smartphones between two different age groups (12-16, and 22) and there were no significant differences between those who are (12-16, 17-21) and (17-21 and 22). Overall, older generations were more likely to use their smartphones for educational purposes than younger generations. There is clear evidence that the behaviour of smartphone users who use their phones for school-related activities was influenced by their level of education. Likewise, research conducted by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hossain</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>283</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hossain &amp; Ahmed, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>283</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">283</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hossain, Md Emran</author><author>Ahmed, SM Zabed</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Academic use of smartphones by university students: a developing country perspective</title><secondary-title>The Electronic Library</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Electronic Library</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hossain & Ahmed, 2016) discovered that 91.7% of the whole sample used smartphones to access their academic platform. Additionally, there were no significant differences in subjective happiness with smartphone usage between the academic levels, despite the study finding few significant gender differences were found according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nam</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>243</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nam, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>243</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">243</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nam, Sang-Zo</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Evaluation of university students utilization of smartphone</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Smart Home</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Smart Home</full-title></periodical><pages>175-182</pages><volume>7</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1975-4094</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nam, 2013).

This study has added more details about using smartphones as educational tools. It found that most smartphone users, both male and female, in this study use their smartphones as educational tools. Users found that their smartphones are helpful tools for their educational work. They used their devices to access a variety of educational resources, including learning (educational information), sharing knowledge, employment, entertainment (leisure), SM, and general problem-solving assistance. This result is in occurrence with a study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Aljaber</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>30</RecNum><DisplayText>(Aljaber, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>30</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028894">30</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Thesis">32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Aljaber, Abdullah Awadh M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The reality of using smartphone applications for learning in higher education of Saudi Arabia</title></titles><dates><year>2021</year></dates><publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Aljaber, 2021) who discovered that mobile apps play a significant part in the education procedure of high-level students. The results of this study are consistent with those of Shaw & Tan (2015), who reported that using mobile technology and smartphone apps in the classroom increased student engagement as well as their participation in the learning process. Furthermore, Moravec et al., (2015) discovered that integrating smart devices into learning improves students overall learning performance. With the help of smartphones and other mobile learning tools, students may complete individualised learning at their own pace, convenience, and speed ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Maazer Al Fawareh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>145</RecNum><DisplayText>(Maazer Al Fawareh &amp; Jusoh, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>145</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1651840050">145</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Maazer Al Fawareh, Hejab</author><author>Jusoh, Shaidah</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The use and effects of smartphones in higher education</title><secondary-title>Ijim</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ijim</full-title></periodical><pages>103</pages><volume>11</volume><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Maazer Al Fawareh & Jusoh, 2017).

Yea I guess so. Since I am a PhD student, I use it if I am looking for papers or if I need to research definitions then it is a quick and easy way to look things up P3, Male.

Yes, sometimes as I told you in sharing articles and maybe also looking for YouTube for, educational YouTube and related to some that you need to understand more maybe online lectures. P16, Female.

Smartphone users security awareness is influenced by several factors while they are using their phones which may put them at risk due to their risky behaviour. To answer the final question in this study What are the most important variables that may influence users security awareness?. Factor analysis was used to find the most crucial factors that influence security awareness and then investigated the influence of the demographic factors. This study revealed that fifteen new important factors influence smartphone users security awareness as follows:

1) Data stored on smartphones, 2) Apps installed on smartphones, 3) Phone duration, GPS, WhatsApp, emails, and pictures, 4) parental control, 5) Apps installed on smartphones, 6) concerns about security and privacy-related aspects 7) Phone change and ooVoo app, 8) Safety actions, 9) Sent/received contents, 10) Viber, Skype and text messages, 11) Awareness of risks and permissions associated with app download, 12) Phone relationships, 13) School activities and old devices 14) Most use of smartphones, 15) Online security and privacy (security behaviour) see Table 6-1. Table STYLEREF 1 s 6 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 1: Summary Table for the affected factors by demographicsFactor Name Gender Age Level of education

1 Data stored on smartphones ((Storing photos of friends on smartphones, storing photos of yourself on smartphones, storing photos of family on smartphones). 2 Apps installed on smartphones ((Skout, 6rounds, Imo, Omegle Apps)).

3 Phone duration, GPS, WhatsApp, emails, and pictures ((Installing WhatsApp App on smartphones, Period of getting the first Internet-enabled phone, Turning off the location tracking (GPS) on smartphones for safety, Storing emails on smartphones, Receiving pictures from people in contact list)

4 Parental control ((How much do you think your parents know about what do you do on your phone?, Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge?, Do your parents ever check how you use your phone?))

5 Apps installed on smartphones ((Installing Messenger app on smartphones, Installing the Snapchat app on smartphones)) 6 Concerns in connection with phone use ((Having concerns about revealing location in connection with phone use, Having concerns about privacy in connection with phone use, Having concerns about personal information in connection with phone use)).

7 Phone change and ooVoo app ((Period of changing mobile phones, Installing ooVoo app on smartphones )) 8 Safety actions ((Avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information, Clearing browsing history))

9 Sent/received contents ((Receiving any content from other people that you found up setting, offensive, or bullying, Receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally))

10 Viber, Skype and text messages ((Installing Viber app on smartphones, Installing Skype app on smartphones, Storing text messages on smartphones)) 11 Awareness of risks and permissions ((Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app?, Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation?)) 12 Phone relationships ((Installing apps on smartphones, Losing a phone or had it stolen, Phone Type )) 13 School activities and old devices ((What do you do with your old phone?, Using smartphones for school-related activities ))

14 Most use of smartphones ((The most use of smartphones)) 15 Online security ((Receiving advice about online security, taking steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, and unwanted messages)) Factors influence security awareness levelPrevious work helps the researcher to understand how to consider smartphone users behaviour, obtain a better look at issues of smartphone security, and users behaviour. Studies indicated that the level of smartphone users awareness influenced by many factors such as the different range of age, educational level, IT security expertise ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>12</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>12</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">12</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019). In term of age, reports illustrated that the older aged-group had lower level in comparison to the youngest group. Additionally, the level of education was one the most influencing factors on the level of security awareness. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>12</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>12</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">12</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019) found that for example, mobile users with higher level of education were more concerned about security more than those who has lower level of education. Argument in the literature in regards the effect of level of education on security awareness. (..). This still not clear how the level of education influence the security awareness level..). Finding of the current study related toeducation level supports the findings of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>t</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>67</RecNum><DisplayText>(t et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>67</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1644426014">67</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>t, Gizem</author><author>Testik, zlem Mge</author><author>Chouseinoglou, Oumout</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Analysis of personal information security behavior and awareness</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>83-93</pages><volume>56</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(t et al., 2016) who statedthat the higher user's education level, the better their awareness of information security. Based on these findings, itmay concludedthat education level has a positive effect on smartphone users' security awareness. Another argument in the literature regarding the effect of the gender on the smartphone users security awareness. Some reports indicated that there is no influence of the gender on the security awareness, (). whereas other studies reported that the gender difference had influenced on the security awareness (.). Studies done in previous years pointed out low security awareness levels among smartphone users ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Markelj</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>11</RecNum><DisplayText>(Markelj &amp; Bernik, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>11</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">11</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Markelj, Bla</author><author>Bernik, Igor</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Safe use of mobile devices arises from knowing the threats</title><secondary-title>journal of information security and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>journal of information security and applications</full-title></periodical><pages>84-89</pages><volume>20</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2214-2126</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Markelj & Bernik, 2015) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jones</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(Jones &amp; Chin, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1644403356">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jones, Beth H</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>On the efficacy of smartphone security: A critical analysis of modifications in business students practices over time</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>561-571</pages><volume>35</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>0268-4012</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Jones & Chin, 2015). The results of the current study indicate that risky behaviour among users continues, and there is no clear improvement on their security awareness level. Risky behaviour and attitudes that expose smartphone users to malware risk. This part discusses the findings of this study highlighting the risky behavior and the attitudes that may expose smartphone users to malware risk.

The finding presented in the part reflects the information collected from the qualitative study which largely reinforces the findings of the current quantitative study and taking in into consideration the important factors that have been identified by the quantitative study part.

As the risks to smartphone information security are on the rise, investigating the behaviour and attitudes related to these risks is a growing concern, therefore, the last point being addressed in this study is:

The behaviour and attitudes of smartphone users might expose them to online and risks.

This study considered that attitude refers to the feelings, and tendencies toward any object or concept ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Khatun</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>207</RecNum><DisplayText>(Khatun et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>207</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">207</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Khatun, Mosa Shely</author><author>Rana, Md Jewel</author><author>Ali, Md Julfikar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Consumers Attitude towards the Use of Smartphone in Bangladesh: A Circumstantial Study on Rangpur Region</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Business and Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Business and Management</full-title></periodical><pages>31-56</pages><volume>9</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Khatun et al., 2017) as well as it is the knowledge that might be positive or negative ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Priester</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>206</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kumar &amp; Arulchelvan; Priester &amp; Petty, 1996)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>206</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">206</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Priester, Joseph R</author><author>Petty, Richard E</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The gradual threshold model of ambivalence: relating the positive and negative bases of attitudes to subjective ambivalence</title><secondary-title>Journal of personality and social psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of personality and social psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>431</pages><volume>71</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>1996</year></dates><isbn>1939-1315</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kumar</Author><RecNum>9</RecNum><record><rec-number>9</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1608369881">9</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kumar, J Dinesh</author><author>Arulchelvan, S</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Attitude towards Smartphones and its Influence on Process, Social and Compulsive Usage</title></titles><dates></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kumar & Arulchelvan; Priester & Petty, 1996). Therefore, this study divided the responses from the participants into positive attitudes and negative attitudes.

A positive attitude means users are not at risk

A negative attitude means the user might be at considerable risk of malware

This current study revealed that there were several underlying issues specific to risks that are associated with smartphone usage and the attitudes that expose users to malware risks and threats.

Smartphone use as a possible risk factorRisks associated with smartphone usage

Connecting to the Internet and Wi-Fi

The current study found that smartphone users involved in this research were always connected to the Internet which means that they might be at risk as previous studies indicated connecting to the Internet all the time may expose users to malware risk. This supports the findings of another study, which showed that allrespondentsaccessedthe Internet on theirsmartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hossain</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>283</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hossain &amp; Ahmed, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>283</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">283</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hossain, Md Emran</author><author>Ahmed, SM Zabed</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Academic use of smartphones by university students: a developing country perspective</title><secondary-title>The Electronic Library</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Electronic Library</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hossain & Ahmed, 2016). Several studies suggested that there are many security threats while using smartphones PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5IZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTM8L1llYXI+PFJlY051

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Ahvanooey et al., 2020; He, 2013; Jeon et al., 2011; Theoharidou et al., 2012).

Also, the users in this study indicated that they use public Wi-Fi sometimes to access the Internet. They access the Internet for several reasons such as accessing their emails, browsing the web, using YouTube, and reading news on BBC. These results are in accordance with the findings of the current qualitative study which described similar patterns of smartphone use in their daily lives ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wang</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>86</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wang et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>86</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">86</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wang, Dan</author><author>Xiang, Zheng</author><author>Fesenmaier, Daniel R</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone use in everyday life and travel</title><secondary-title>Journal of travel research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of travel research</full-title></periodical><pages>52-63</pages><volume>55</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0047-2875</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wang et al., 2016). This study considered that connecting to the Internet all the time or via Wi-Fi was considered a negative attitude means the users might be at considerable risk of malware as this might be unsecured WiFi.

Previous research by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>NortonLifeLock</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><DisplayText>(NortonLifeLock, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>54</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">54</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>NortonLifeLock</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The risks of public Wi-Fi</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>19/05/2022</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>NortonLifeLock</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-privacy-risks-of-public-wi-fi.html#</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(NortonLifeLock, 2018) indicated that connecting to the Internet all the time, particularly with free Wi-Fi may risk smartphone users. Public Wi-Fi is problematic since there are so many risks involved. Although business owners may think they are giving their users a beneficial service, its probable that the security on these networks is either poor or non-existent. These risks can be in different forms such as Man-in-the-Middle (Middleman) attacks which are one of the most common risks on the networks. Another risk is networking without encryption.

There are various techniques for attackers to secretly install malware on users devices. A software vulnerability is a flaw or security hole in a computer operating system or software programme. Hackers can take advantage of this weakness by building code to target a specific vulnerability and then infecting a device with malware. Sniffing and snooping is another way of spreading malware. Cybercriminals can purchase special software kits and even equipment to aid them in intercepting Wi-Fi signals. This method gives attackers access to anything you do online, from browsing to downloading ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>NortonLifeLock</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ahvanooey et al., 2020; NortonLifeLock, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>54</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">54</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>NortonLifeLock</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The risks of public Wi-Fi</title></titles><volume>2022</volume><number>19/05/2022</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>NortonLifeLock</publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-privacy-risks-of-public-wi-fi.html#</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Ahvanooey</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>201</RecNum><record><rec-number>201</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">201</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ahvanooey, Milad Taleby</author><author>Li, Qianmu</author><author>Rabbani, Mahdi</author><author>Rajput, Ahmed Raza</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on smartphones security: software vulnerabilities, malware, and attacks</title><secondary-title>arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.09406</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.09406</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ahvanooey et al., 2020; NortonLifeLock, 2018).

For the positive attitudes the smartphone users indicated they prefer not to reveal and risk their information as they believe that this may expose them to malware risk, therefore, most of them kept their old phones that they do not use any more as a backup in case they lost their current smartphones, whereas others chose to keep it for memory. Importantly, most of them do not want to disclose the information stored on their phones because they have concerns about the confidentiality of the data stored on their smartphone. Most smartphone users keep their old phones to protect their privacy and they use them if they need them ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Speake</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>170</RecNum><DisplayText>(Speake &amp; Yangke, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>170</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">170</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Speake, Janet</author><author>Yangke, Leopoul Nchawa</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>&quot; What do I do with my old mobile phones? I just put them in a drawer&quot;: Attitudes and perspectives towards the disposal of mobile phones in Liverpool, UK</title><secondary-title>Human Geographies</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Human Geographies</full-title></periodical><pages>241</pages><volume>9</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1843-6587</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Speake & Yangke, 2015).

Only few participants sold their old phones as they no longer use them which exposes their information to malware risk. Additionally, most participants mentioned that they give their old phones to their related family members. This is in line with another study that shows 32% of their participants indicated that they would keep their devices. Although it may be the most practical choice, this is also the least eco-friendly. The next most common response type (23 out of 88) was selling their old smartphones and 23 more people choose to recycle their phones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Venkitachalam</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>317</RecNum><DisplayText>(Venkitachalam et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>317</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666179913">317</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Venkitachalam, Vijay S</author><author>Namboodiri, Vinod</author><author>Joseph, Siny</author><author>Dee, Emily</author><author>Burdsal, Charles A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What, Why, and How: Surveying what consumers want in new mobile phones</title><secondary-title>IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine</full-title></periodical><pages>54-59</pages><volume>4</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2162-2248</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Venkitachalam et al., 2015). Additionally, according to the responses, between 40 and 50% of the devices are still not being used ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Venkitachalam</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>317</RecNum><DisplayText>(Venkitachalam et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>317</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666179913">317</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Venkitachalam, Vijay S</author><author>Namboodiri, Vinod</author><author>Joseph, Siny</author><author>Dee, Emily</author><author>Burdsal, Charles A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What, Why, and How: Surveying what consumers want in new mobile phones</title><secondary-title>IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine</full-title></periodical><pages>54-59</pages><volume>4</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2162-2248</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Venkitachalam et al., 2015).

Reasons for changing the smartphone

The study participants indicated that by participants in the study that technological advancement (upgrade and model) was the most common reason for substituting mobile phones. Staying fashionable and a desire to have a long-lasting battery were also cited as a reason for switching to a new mobile phone. Selling and recycling smartphones were considered negative attitudes as they are risking their personal information, particularly with the advanced technology and the possibility of recovering the information. This may be laid smartphone users at risk without knowing that.

Changing in the smartphone usage

Most of the participants in this study stated that their usage has changed for different reasons. For exp using more apps, checking emails, and news, surfing the Internet, checking SM accounts, seeking information, reading papers and PDF files, using it as a TV, listening to music and playing games. The results confirm the findings in studies by PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5PbmdvbmRvPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwvWWVhcj48

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Ongondo et al., 2011; Speake & Yangke, 2015; Yl-Mella et al., 2015) provided reasons such as longer-lasting phones. Using more apps may induce them to more risks, as many apps requests to access the phone to provide the services or may track their location these may place the smartphone users in a risky position. The extensive use of the apps means they expose themself to unknown risks. A study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Speake</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>170</RecNum><DisplayText>(Speake &amp; Yangke, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>170</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">170</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Speake, Janet</author><author>Yangke, Leopoul Nchawa</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>&quot; What do I do with my old mobile phones? I just put them in a drawer&quot;: Attitudes and perspectives towards the disposal of mobile phones in Liverpool, UK</title><secondary-title>Human Geographies</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Human Geographies</full-title></periodical><pages>241</pages><volume>9</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1843-6587</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Speake & Yangke, 2015) a found that several opinions and responses to the risks of using mobile phones have been put forth, use on people and the environment, which suggest that users know about the risks caused by mobile phones. Their finding provided evidence that there is much scope for further increasing user awareness of the risks of poor disposal of mobile phones of electronic waste disposal represents an important first step towards providing more effective solutions.

Losing phones

Another source of risk can be losing phones, the present study revealed that most participants indicated that they did not lose their phones or have them stolen and highlighted their concerns about losing their smartphones. Whereas some of the participants reported that they had experienced smartphone loss incidents in the past. They have revealed that they were concerned about their security information particularly. Increased concern over phone loss or theft likely makes smartphone users more cautious to store sensitive data on their smartphones or submit sensitive data to the apps they are using on their smartphones.

Contents stored on smartphones

The current study found that most of the participants stored different contents on their smartphones. For instance, photos, videos, music, emails, pdf files/ articles, pictures of their selves, families and friends from SM accounts, notes, text messages, apps, cinema codes, airline tickets/boarding pass, bank details and contact list on their smartphones. Furthermore, smartphones contain a lot of personal information making them a target for a lot of criminal attacks. Content stored on the phones such as emails needs an Internet connection, so, it will expose the user to malware risk and their personal information and sensitive data will be at risk if their smartphones are lost or have been stolen and the stored contents on these devices will be disclosed to unauthorized access. Similarly, previous research showed that users smartphones carry both business and personal data, including extremely private information such credit card details, PIN numbers and passwords, bank account information, and their address book and contact numbers, which raises their risk of identity theft ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dhandapani</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>348</RecNum><DisplayText>(Dhandapani et al., 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>348</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667077142">348</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dhandapani, Gloria</author><author>Ferguson, Jamie</author><author>Freeman, Euan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Hapticlock: Eyes-free authentication for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction</secondary-title></titles><pages>195-202</pages><dates><year>2021</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Dhandapani et al., 2021).

Using security controls

The use of security measures aids in preventing unauthorised access to data stored on smartphones. It was also discovered that when these controls are not in place, this may lead to the unauthorised exposure of sensitive data stored on smartphones ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Androulidakis</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>288</RecNum><DisplayText>(Androulidakis &amp; Kandus, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>288</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">288</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Androulidakis, Iosif</author><author>Kandus, Gorazd</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on saving personal data in the mobile phone</title><secondary-title>2011 Sixth International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security</secondary-title></titles><pages>633-638</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1457709791</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011). The same was true for users whose phones had been lost or stolen.

According to survey findings, users who save sensitive data on their devices are most likely to be aware of the security software that is already in place. The impact of unauthorised access to the data is more likely to belarger because this shows that the same device is used for both personal and other reasons. The findings also suggest that users who keep data may review security notifications more frequently. This is a noteworthy finding since it increases the potential that a user installing pirated software could experience a privacy breach in which hackers could access personal data without their permission. Finally, users who are not aware of smartphone malware are more vulnerable to having their data stolen. Such attitude was also found in ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Androulidakis</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>288</RecNum><DisplayText>(Androulidakis &amp; Kandus, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>288</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">288</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Androulidakis, Iosif</author><author>Kandus, Gorazd</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on saving personal data in the mobile phone</title><secondary-title>2011 Sixth International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security</secondary-title></titles><pages>633-638</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1457709791</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011) where users who stored personal data did not adhere to security practices, such as backups.

Risks associated with smartphone securitySmartphone security

Smartphone security is the protection of smartphone devices from threats associated with Internet use and it has become increasingly more important. If the users care about their smartphone security this means that their attitude is a positive attitude, if they do not consider smartphone security important, they have a negative attitude toward smartphone use and they will be exposed to malware risk. To gain an understanding of the users general security awareness in relation to using a smartphone, the current study found that most of the participants consider their smartphone security important. Because it stores sensitive information that can be dangerous if it is used by someone else, or if they get access to bank account details, they will steal a lot of sensitive data stored on it and this is a serious risk. With the advances in smartphones and the use of apps these days, most people use Internet banking apps on their smartphones, and the majority of mobile banking apps access bank information from a secure data centre rather than directly storing it on the phone.

Other participants considered smartphone security important as it holds sensitive data such as bank details and will be at high risk if their account is compromised through their smartphones. Some of the participants do not trust their smartphones, so they only use them for communicating through SM and do not use them for banking accounts or anything sensitive. Browsing the web, YouTube, listening to music, news on BBC and reading pdf files, also check what academics do up to date and communicate with families through different SM accounts such as Instagram, Snapchat, WhatsApp, and Twitter. Participants who stated that they do not use their smartphones for banking accounts or anything sensitive is likely to be more careful toward financial apps such as online banking. This result confirms the results of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019) who found that that users are more cautious toward financial applications.

I never enter my bank account from my mobile. I am just concerned about my security, my privacy because I am using a lot of social media, so I do not know how much my account is secure, I do not trust my mobile phone. P17, Female.

Being aware of the risks of storing credentials on the smartphone

In this study, one participant stated that he does not consider security awareness as important. Another participant revealed that they have a lack of awareness of how to keep themselves and their phones secure. This could be due to their lack of experience in the use of security software for this purpose. Users of social media want to keep their accounts on their smartphones for easy access. Their lack of security awareness probably makes them think that keeping SM credentials safe is not as important as keeping banking app credentials safe. Not trusting banking app show a lack of knowledge as these apps are developed securely.

According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jones</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(Jones &amp; Chin, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1644403356">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jones, Beth H</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>On the efficacy of smartphone security: A critical analysis of modifications in business students practices over time</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>561-571</pages><volume>35</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>0268-4012</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Jones & Chin, 2015) report, 29% of participants keep their login information, including passwords and PINs, on their smartphones. According to a study by Koyuncu and Pusatli (2019), it is 29%, the same ratio as that provided by Jones and Chin, and strikingly similar to the result found for medium competency by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gkioulos</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>211</RecNum><DisplayText>(Gkioulos et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>211</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">211</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gkioulos, Vasileios</author><author>Wangen, Gaute</author><author>Katsikas, Sokratis K</author><author>Kavallieratos, George</author><author>Kotzanikolaou, Panayiotis</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness of the digital natives</title><secondary-title>Information</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information</full-title></periodical><pages>42</pages><volume>8</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gkioulos et al., 2017).

No adoption of smartphone protection mechanisms

On the positive side, the study discovered that most users do not store any sensitive data on their smartphones, and they do not use them for online banking which is a general good security practice. Furthermore, this study found that most users use encryption to protect their data. In contrast, an alarming 78.57% of survey respondentsto another study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011), did not encrypt critical or vital data kept on their mobile devices. One of the major security threats, especially when contemplating identity theft, might be easily avoided by using basic encryption techniques. Furthermore, 16.24% of users do not consistently install system updates and upgrades, making them extremely susceptible to system attacks and a variety of other risks. In addition, some of the participants indicated that they do not follow the links from untrusted senders a reference to that would be as follows:

Yeah, some of this information was useful. Like when you get an e-mail for example from people you do not know, do not follow the links if you do not trust the sender. Also, sometimes on Twitter on social media, they put fake news here is the link. They put for example International News which attracts people. Then when you click on the link, it is going to be something damaging to your phone. P4, Female.

Amongst some risks, unlike, the findings of this study are contradicted by results from ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011) research, 7.14% of survey participants willingly click on links contained in SMS or MMS messages delivered by unidentified senders. SMS and MMS messages continue to be a very popular means to share malicious code onto mobile devices, regardless of the infection pathway used, i.e., email attachments, and extra caution should be used to avoid opening any links or attachments sent from unidentified senders.

Additionally, regarding the users experience of having a virus on their smartphones, most of the participants in the present study revealed that they have not encountered any experience with online threats or any types of malwares on their smartphones. In the contrast, few participants informed that they have experienced online threats or any types of malwares on their smartphones. This is following a study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011) who found that all 79 respondents answered no.

On the other hand, the current study found that some of the participants stated that they do not know if they have got any viruses. This is consistent with the findings of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011), who discovered that their respondents can have a virus on their mobile device but be fully unaware of it. Because 87.71% of respondents said they do not use antivirus software, even if a virus were to be present on the device, it might not be seen until a virus scan is run. Overall, they discovered that many survey participants had inadequate awareness of mobile security as well as poor security measures. Because of this, many of the participants would be significantly at risk of some sort of security breach, and thanks to the numerous infection paths accessible, damage to the mobile device need not result from its loss or theft.

Furthermore, the general level of awareness is so low that even basic signs of a viral infection are overlooked. However, the existence of risks in the mobile environment would be called into question if all 87.71% of respondents had in fact never experienced a virus.

Additionally, most smartphone users in this study admitted they do not conduct financial transactions on their devices. This is in response to a survey that found that most participants do not manage their finances by phone. Only 7.14% of their responders handle their accounts using a mobile device, despite the fact that 92.86% of their members do not, while Internet usage on mobile devices rises ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011).

Users may be at risk from malware if they are unaware of the major security concerns that have been revealed. The ability to retrieve passwords stored on a device would allow a fraudster to access several services the user has previously utilised. The fraudster might have access to bank account information, for instance, if online banking or any other type of online purchase has been completed. Additionally, a lot of people use the same password across numerous services. The probability of being a victim rises because of this potentially opening door to other aspects of the persons life.

Clear their browsing histories

The current study also found that users clear their browsing histories for safety, which is good security practice. This is confirmed by studies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Boyles</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>330</RecNum><DisplayText>(Boyles et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>330</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666182023">330</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Boyles, Jan Lauren</author><author>Smith, Aaron</author><author>Madden, Mary</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Privacy and data management on mobile devices</title><secondary-title>Pew Internet &amp; American Life Project</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Pew internet &amp; American life project</full-title></periodical><pages>1-19</pages><volume>4</volume><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Boyles et al., 2012) which discovered that 32% of all smartphone users have cleared the browsing history on their phone. In conflict, and making matters worse ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011) discovered that their survey respondents - an worrying 82.73% - did not erase cache files, cookies, or browsing history. Additionally, cookies and browsing histories take up a lot of space when they are not cleared. This poses a serious threat to security, especially if the smartphones end up in unauthorised people.

SM Apps

To demonstrate this exposure, the smartphone users in this study use some apps on their smartphones. Some of these apps are Facebook, WhatsApp, Snapchat, On-line Banking, PayPal, emails, and Twitter. If a browser has the passwords saved, it is simple to access all apps that are installed on smartphones. Storing passwords may risk their smartphone as the browsers are saved to them which makes it a weak point to get attacked. Notably, the most used platforms in this study were Facebook. Followed by Snapchat, the next most common platforms were Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram respectively. This is consistent with the observation in the literature that their participants found to use some apps such as Facebook, on-line banking, and emails. These apps are the most widely used apps in their study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011).

Accessing emails

Fraudsters might very simply get other crucial information if they had access to emails. For instance, many emails that contain sensitive banking information are sent as confirmations for online purchase transactions. Additionally, a lot of emails serve as electronic confirmations of usernames and passwords for other websites and having access to this information would make it easier to commit identity fraud and theft.

On-line Banking

Although on-line banking was not widely used among the participants as other apps, this app still presents huge threats to users. It contains extremely sensitive details about financial accounts that can be simply exploited to commit fraud as confirmed by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011). According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McAfee</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>354</RecNum><DisplayText>(McAfee, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>354</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667815906">354</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author> McAfee</author></authors></contributors><titles><title> McAfee Mobile Treat Report, McAfee,&#xD;Santa Clara, CA, USA</title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.mcafee.com/enterprise/en-us/assets/reports/rp-mobile-threat-report-2018.pdf</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(McAfee, 2018), there has been an increase in malicious banking trojans that target Android platform vulnerabilities and, among other things, give smartphones the ability to run crypto ransomware. As a result, the current studydeterminesthat there is a definite need to raise public awareness of this issue.

Pirated apps

Most of the participants did not use pirated apps on their phones. While few participants have used them for reasons such as if the app version is free, from open source and limited access. This is in line with PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5aaG91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48UmVj

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Mylonas et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2012; Zhou & Jiang, 2012) who reported smartphone users preference for pirated apps over original ones. In contrast, most of the users indicated that they have not installed any pirated apps. Various reasons were reported for those who have not used the pirated apps, for example, some stated that they only use the known ones, do not install unknown apps as they might contain viruses, and some of the smartphone users reported that they trust the AppStore and they are sure that the Apple will not them download such apps, only the original ones, whereas a few numbers of them have moral concerns that prevented them from downloading pirated apps. Although there is no full guarantee to have secure apps, it is known that apps shared by such repositories are passed through serious controls. This is consistent with the findings of a previous study which highlighted that users think that downloading apps from trusted repositories is secure ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013). Users who use pirated apps on their smartphones are exposed to malware risk.In contrast, few participants in this study revealed that they have used them for reasons such as if the app version is free, from open source and limited access. This result is following a study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) which found that 60.7% of the participants stated a preference for pirated apps. Consequently, there is a considerable likelihood that participants get infected by a pirated app.

Android offers a combination of software- and hardware-based protection, but iOS security is more heavily weighted toward software-based protection. In the end, a device is only fully secure if the usertakes theirown security measures.

Similar built-in features exist on both iOS and Android, such as virtual sandboxes that restrict the damage that malicious apps can do. Android users must enable drive encryption; it is a function that comes standard on iOS. For mobile devices, both OS fully enable VPN encryption. When it comes to smartphone security in 2022, iOS remains the top operating system. That so, it still stands to reason that it may be enhanced ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Markuson</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>352</RecNum><DisplayText>(Markuson, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>352</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667691305">352</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Daniel Markuson </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android vs. iOS: security comparison 2022</title></titles><dates><year>2022</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://nordvpn.com/blog/ios-vs-android-security/#:~:text=iOS%20security%20focuses%20more%20on,you%20take%20your%20own%20precautions.</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Markuson, 2022).

Licensing agreements

The current study indicated that most participants revealed that they do not pay attention to licensing agreements or security messages that appear during the app installation process on their smartphones. Security messages that advise on possible risks related to software downloads or untrusted websites visiting. This is concerning users who ignore licencing agreements because they are unable to make proper security decisions, which is contrary to permission-based smartphone security models expectations and exposes a critical exposure. Some of the participants stated that they agree to licensing agreements without reading them as they have no choice, and as they are too long, they skip some of these messages without paying any attention to them. Some said that they consider reviews before agreeing. In contrast, several reports indicated smartphone users frequently disregard repetitive warnings particularly when a warning appears as the user is attempting to accomplish things ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Egelman</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><DisplayText>(Egelman et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>64</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">64</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Egelman, Serge</author><author>Cranor, Lorrie Faith</author><author>Hong, Jason</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>You&apos;ve been warned: an empirical study of the effectiveness of web browser phishing warnings</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems</secondary-title></titles><pages>1065-1074</pages><dates><year>2008</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Egelman et al., 2008); ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Motiee</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><DisplayText>(Motiee et al., 2010; Sunshine et al., 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>65</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">65</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Motiee, Sara</author><author>Hawkey, Kirstie</author><author>Beznosov, Konstantin</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Do Windows users follow the principle of least privilege? Investigating user account control practices</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-13</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Sunshine</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><record><rec-number>63</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">63</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sunshine, Joshua</author><author>Egelman, Serge</author><author>Almuhimedi, Hazim</author><author>Atri, Neha</author><author>Cranor, Lorrie Faith</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Crying wolf: An empirical study of ssl warning effectiveness</title><secondary-title>USENIX security symposium</secondary-title></titles><pages>399-416</pages><dates><year>2009</year></dates><publisher>Montreal, Canada</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Motiee et al., 2010; Sunshine et al., 2009). Additionally, users have a tendency to ignore subsequent warnings, particularly if they resemble an EULA ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bhme</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>232</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bhme &amp; Kpsell, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>232</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1652868377">232</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bhme, Rainer</author><author>Kpsell, Stefan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Trained to accept? A field experiment on consent dialogs</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems</secondary-title></titles><pages>2403-2406</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bhme & Kpsell, 2010).

The old Android way of wrapping up permissions at install time did certainly clash with EULAs and that is still true of most website approaches to cookies. Google has moved the security messages and introduced app permissions which helped support users privacy by protecting access to multiple elements such as: restricted data like system state and a users contact information. Also, restricted actions which considered risky such as connecting to a paired device and recording audio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Developers</Author><Year>2022</Year><RecNum>350</RecNum><DisplayText>(Developers, 2022)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>350</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667688200">350</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Developers</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Determine sensitive data access needs</title></titles><dates><year>2022</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>https://developer.android.com/guide/topics/permissions/overview</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Developers, 2022).

Unverified third-party apps

Downloading email attachments or third-party software that have not been verified contains significant risks. Despite the low numbers of users who done so, there are still a lot of users who put themselves at risk in this way, with most of them having completed their university degrees. This illustrates that many people are aware that their behaviour may pose security risks but choose to act in this either way.

Using Global Positioning System (GPS) feature on smartphones

The present study reported that most of the participants turn off GPS on their smartphones. And that was for many different reasons such as battery life, privacy and do not want to reveal their locations. Some indicated that they let some apps access their locations such as fitness apps and maps for travel times. Most participants stated that they turn off GPS as it consumes battery, drains the battery, preserves battery. The results of the current study are like earlier research which indicated that 80% of participants claimed to use smartphone location services, but the majority stated thatthey do not usually do so. The results show that about half of the participants used smartphone location services to locate others according to the findings. They discovered that 60% of theparticipants reveal their location on SNS after examining their location-sharing behaviour. In addition, theydiscovered that 57% of the users believe that sharing their location with other people has no security or privacy risks ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017). While other reasons for turning off GPS were that users do not like that apps know their locations, and they do not want to reveal their locations and keep their locations private. Users who turn GPS off on their smartphones have a positive attitude toward smartphone use. They might be less likely to be exposed to malware risk. Therefore, turning GPS on all the time might help the exposure of users locations and lead to malware risks.

Risk associated with user Awareness

Existence of smartphone malicious software

Only one participant reported that they are not aware of smartphone malicious software (virus, worm, Trojan horse) existence, they were only aware of the existence of malware for computers not for smartphones. This lack of awareness of the existence of smartphone malicious software might expose smartphone users to more online risks and threats and make them more vulnerable. Users will be better able to protect theirthemselves, and their smartphones and data stored on themfrom any online threats if awareness is increased.

The survey found that most respondents use anti-virus software on their smartphones. This conflicts with the results of a study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011) who found that 87.71% of users do not install anti-virus software on their smartphones. However, only 5.14% of the users have installed anti-virus software. And 7.14% of the users are unaware that their smartphones are running antivirus software. This is in line with this studys findings that observed that other users do not know whether their smartphones have anti-virus software which is a serious concern. Overall, the findings of this study found that some smartphone users have a good level of awareness. Moreover, by not installing security software on their smartphones, most users expose their devices to a different of security risks. Modern mobile devices should be managed and protected consequently as they are like minicomputers.

Smartphone locking

Password usage and security knowledge have a significant relationship. With higher security awareness, there is a clear trend toward higher password use. The strength of PIN selections, where a significant correlation exists between the usage of long PINs and better cybersecurity familiarity, was another area where knowledge was linked to improved security behaviour ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Breitinger</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(Breitinger et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643736168">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Breitinger, Frank</author><author>Tully-Doyle, Ryan</author><author>Hassenfeldt, Courtney</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on smartphone users security choices, awareness and education</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>101647</pages><volume>88</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Breitinger et al., 2020).

The current study found that most users are using smartphone security mechanisms, such as passwords, lock screen, pattern lock, fingerprint lock patterns, and encryption which confirms the results of previous studies. For example, Breitinger and Nickel, (2010) found that while 2/3 of participants were open to using biometrics authentication techniques in place of the currently selected setting, only 13% of participants secured their phone using a PIN or visual code (Android pattern) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Breitinger</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>294</RecNum><DisplayText>(Breitinger &amp; Nickel, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>294</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663844232">294</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Breitinger, Frank</author><author>Nickel, Claudia</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>User survey on phone security and usage</title><secondary-title>BIOSIG 2010: Biometrics and Electronic Signatures. Proceedings of the Special Interest Group on Biometrics and Electronic Signatures</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>BIOSIG 2010: Biometrics and Electronic Signatures. Proceedings of the Special Interest Group on Biometrics and Electronic Signatures</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2010</year></dates><isbn>3885792583</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Breitinger & Nickel, 2010). And Mylonas and others, (2013) who discovered that the participants tend to use encryption, device password lock ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>139</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>139</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1651662285">139</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013). This is a positive attitude that aid users in not being exposed to security risks. Years later,42.7% of participants have beenfound touse some type of lock screen, including PINs, passwords, or unlock patterns according to a study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harbach</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>295</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harbach et al., 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>295</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663845165">295</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harbach, Marian</author><author>Von Zezschwitz, Emanuel</author><author>Fichtner, Andreas</author><author>De Luca, Alexander</author><author>Smith, Matthew</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>{Its} a hard lock life: A field study of smartphone ({Un) Locking} behavior and risk perception</title><secondary-title>10th symposium on usable privacy and security (SOUPS 2014)</secondary-title></titles><pages>213-230</pages><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>1931971137</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harbach et al., 2014). Even more recent research suggest higher figures; ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Anderson</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>296</RecNum><DisplayText>(Anderson, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>296</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1663845386">296</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Anderson, Monica</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Many smartphone owners dont take steps to secure their devices</title></titles><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Anderson, 2017) reported that 72% of people use a lock screen (PIN, fingerprint scanner, password, pattern of dots or other).

However, the present study showed that other features such as remote device locator or remote data wipe, multifactor authentication scheme have not mentioned by any of the participants. This shows a poor password protection which may expose users to risks. According to a previous study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>139</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>139</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1651662285">139</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013), users technical skills have an impact on the security controls implementation. When users are technically savvy, they are more likely to enable different protection mechanisms such as remote device locator, data encryption, and remote data wipe.

In addition, the current study observed that some of the participants access the apps anytime without using any protection mechanisms. Furthermore, few participants showed that they entered the passwords of their email accounts on their smartphones, after which they can access their emails any time. The risk of unauthorised physical access is significant in this case identity theft and data leakage. The findings of the current study are supported findings of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017), which discovered that 70% of smartphone users surveyed lock their devices.Four individuals reported using fingerprint authentication, four people said they used numerical PINs, and three participants said they utilised pattern locks when questioned about the locking mechanisms they use. Nine individuals who selected PIN authentication said they associate their passcodes with significant dates or phone numbers. It is interesting to note that 43% of the participants who were interviewed admitted to knowing the PINs or other security codes belonging to friends or family. In addition, 47% of individuals who locked their phones claimed to have done so to prevent unauthorised access, yet only 19% claimed they did not want their phones. However, only 19% of respondents indicated they did not want their relatives to have access to their phones. In addition, 36% of users locked their iPhones to prevent their kids from accessing them (e.g., because they might make unintended phone calls).

However, some participants in this study stated that they do not lock their phones, but they use passcodes and passwords for the apps. When security software is not enabled or used, this can lead to the unauthorised disclosure of sensitive data such as banking details, as was found in other studies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Androulidakis</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>288</RecNum><DisplayText>(Androulidakis &amp; Kandus, 2011; Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>288</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">288</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Androulidakis, Iosif</author><author>Kandus, Gorazd</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on saving personal data in the mobile phone</title><secondary-title>2011 Sixth International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security</secondary-title></titles><pages>633-638</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1457709791</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011; Mylonas et al., 2013). This also applied to users who had misplaced their devices.

While others indicated that they use different protection mechanisms to protect themselves and their devices. For example,

It is locked. It is tracked and, via google, I can unlock I can throw the phone off my account so I can sort of remove that risk. The SD card is encrypted. Theres not anything on it that I would mind, that is a problem, but the feature is there so I use it. And it is got the network's security app, so like the network provider. I am not sure how secure that is in terms of features, but it is there. And I opt into the google security options so that is about as secure as I can make it without, low effort P9, Man.

This finding of the current study show that some of the users do not protect their smartphones, this is similar to the findings of a study which found that half of the smartphone users do not protect their devices with passwords ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sophos</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>23</RecNum><DisplayText>(Sophos, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>23</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">23</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author> Sophos </author></authors></contributors><titles><title> Sophos security report 2010</title></titles><volume>2018</volume><number>11 June 2018</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><publisher> Sophos </publisher><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>http://www.sophos.com/sophos/docs/eng/papers/sophos-security-threat-report-jan-2010-wpna.pdf </electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Sophos, 2010). This increases many security concerns, as using protection mechanisms is extremely important to protect users sensitive data stored on their smartphones. The findings are also in line with a study by Research from Kaspersky Lab has found that 52% of people do not password-protect their mobile devices to stay safe from online threats ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>SECURITY</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>342</RecNum><DisplayText>(SECURITY, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>342</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1667075633">342</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>SECURITY</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>More Than Half of Consumers Dont Password-Protect their Mobile Devices</title></titles><dates><year>2018</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>https://www.securitymagazine.com/articles/89220-half-of-consumers-dont-password-protect-their-mobile-devices</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(SECURITY, 2018).

The findings of this interview showed that participants who do not install security software on their smartphones and are aware of the existence of such software reported that they inclined to consider using security software is not essential or is not useful and also, they tend not to use them as they did not need it and they believe that device protection is unnecessary, and they do not use any mechanism on their smartphone which put themselves at risk or makes themselves vulnerable users. In addition, those users who do not use security software on their smartphones are leaving themselves vulnerable to security attackers.

No, to be honest, I do not use anything. I just leave it P17, Female.

So yes, I am aware of it as well, but I do not use it, So I have not found a need for it myself, so not very useful I think P7, Male.

I have asked they have like this antivirus that you can extend it like to be used on your mobile, but I have not used it on my mobile P6, Male.

This result is in accordance with the findings of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>139</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>139</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1651662285">139</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) who noticed that users who do not use security software on their smartphones be likely to consider that smartphone security software is not important (and tend not to use them). Using smartphone protection mechanisms might mitigate the exposure to risks and threats. Whereas not using smartphone protection mechanisms will expose users to malware risk.

From the security viewpoint, a significant concern is that nowadays smartphones are being used for banking transactions and some shopping. In this study, mobile banking apps were used by most users who use their smartphones to access their bank accounts by entering their credentials each time they use their accounts online. These findings accord with the finding of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019) who found that users use their phones for shopping online and using their bank online with 37.4% and 47.1%. Smartphones could be infected with malware made particularly to steal login information for internet banking and credit card numbers. This kind of app usage demonstrates why its crucial for users to be aware of smartphone security risks.

Awareness of available smartphone malicious software

The current study revealed that most of the participants are aware of the presence of malicious software (viruses, worms, and Trojan horses) for smartphones, except only one who said that he is unaware of the existence of such software for the smartphones, whereas he only aware of the existence of the computer malware. Most of the participants revealed that they have not encountered any experience with online threats or any types of malwares on their smartphones. In contrast, few of the participants informed that they have experienced online threats or any type of malware on their smartphones illustrated as followed:

Yes, sometimes when I have visited an inauthentic website, and then they link you to another website and say congratulations, you have won something. So, I try to completely shut the website before they attack my phone P4, Female.

Furthermore, according to the study results by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>139</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>139</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1651662285">139</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013), users who do not encrypt their data are less likely to use security software, are unaware of malware for smartphones and do not look for free smartphone security software in the app repository. This finding is consistent with the current study findings which reported that users who are not aware of the existence of malicious software (virus, worm, Trojan horse) for smartphones, are only aware of the presence of malicious software for computers not for smartphones. As a result, there is a serious risk of remote unauthorised access. This lack of awareness of the existence of malicious software for smartphones might expose smartphone users to more online risks and threats and make them more vulnerable. Other participants revealed that they do not know whether they have experienced any malware. The awareness of smartphone malicious software might reduce the malware risk. Whereas unaware users might be more likely to be at risk.

Awareness of available security software

The present study revealed that most smartphone users showed that they are aware of the presence of security software that is available for smartphones (e.g., antivirus, firewall). Surprisingly, only a few of those who are aware of the existence of such software of antivirus, or firewall software that are available for smartphones, only a few of them stated that they are already in use of it. A study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alani</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>172</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alani, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>172</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">172</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alani, Mohammed M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android Users Privacy Awareness Survey</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</full-title></periodical><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1865-7923</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alani, 2017), confirms these points by discovering that 62.83% of respondents said they had never installed anti-malware or anti-virus software on their smartphones, compared to 37.17% who claimed to have done so.

Some of the smartphone users in this interview declared that they are not aware of the availability of security software for smartphones, however, they are only aware of the availability of such software only for PCs and Laptops. Few those who are not aware of the presence of security software and do not use it on their smartphones believe that installing such software would be useful and great. Generally, using and having awareness of security software will help users to mitigate the malware risks.

When it comes to the usefulness of the available security software for smartphones, most of the participants who already used it on their smartphones reported that they found it extremely useful for their security. However, others think that such software will be useful even when they do not use it on their smartphones. Few of the participants interviewed declared that they assume that the security software for smartphones is already included in the apple OS, and they think that they do not need to install another security software to protect their devices. Users who have used it indicated that the usefulness of the software depends on what they use it for. Another reason indicated by other participants who are aware of the availability of the software but do not use it, as they do not connect to the Internet all the time, and they think using such a software would be useful.

Receiving advice on information security

In the present study, most of the participants revealed that they have not got any advice related to smartphone security. Whereas some smartphone users declared that they received advice on information security. It ranges from UG security courses, PRB courses, and general advice not specific to smartphones. Information security awareness can mitigate the exposure to malware risk. For information and network security, security awareness is seen as the first line of defence PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Nb2FsbGVtPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxODwvWWVhcj48

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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (ENISA, 2002; Moallem, 2018). As a result, it appears that incorporating training to promote security awareness among university students, and even earlier in high school, is critical.

Sharing some content with others

Smartphones are now storing and processing large amounts of sensitive data, such as contacts, emails, photos, and videos, as they begin to replace PCs due to their enhanced features and convenience of use. Smartphones are therefore a desirable target for hackers especially considering the multiple-ways in which they might infect their victims devices with harmful software and gaining unauthorised access to users' personal information ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Miller</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><DisplayText>(Leavitt, 2011; Miller, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>85</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">85</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Miller, Charlie</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile attacks and defense</title><secondary-title>IEEE Security &amp; Privacy</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Security &amp; Privacy</full-title></periodical><pages>68-70</pages><volume>9</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1540-7993</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Leavitt</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>84</RecNum><record><rec-number>84</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">84</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Leavitt, Neal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile security: finally a serious problem?</title><secondary-title>Computer</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer</full-title></periodical><pages>11-14</pages><volume>44</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0018-9162</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Leavitt, 2011; Miller, 2011) (Symantec, 2015). Many smartphone users, for example, may be vulnerable to malicious apps downloaded from uncontrolled app marketplaces due to a lack of awareness ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>La Polla</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>83</RecNum><DisplayText>(La Polla et al., 2012; Leavitt, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>83</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">83</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>La Polla, Mariantonietta</author><author>Martinelli, Fabio</author><author>Sgandurra, Daniele</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on security for mobile devices</title><secondary-title>IEEE communications surveys &amp; tutorials</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>IEEE Communications Surveys &amp; Tutorials</full-title></periodical><pages>446-471</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1553-877X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Leavitt</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>84</RecNum><record><rec-number>84</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">84</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Leavitt, Neal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile security: finally a serious problem?</title><secondary-title>Computer</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer</full-title></periodical><pages>11-14</pages><volume>44</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0018-9162</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(La Polla et al., 2012; Leavitt, 2011). Receiving phishing messages via SMS, MMS, email, SM, and phone calls may make smartphone users more vulnerable to a variety of security and privacy issues ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Leavitt</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>84</RecNum><DisplayText>(Leavitt, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>84</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">84</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Leavitt, Neal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile security: finally a serious problem?</title><secondary-title>Computer</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer</full-title></periodical><pages>11-14</pages><volume>44</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0018-9162</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Leavitt, 2011).

The current study reported that participants share many different things including pictures, messages, PDF files and articles, emails, SM, newspaper websites, music, and photos. sharing images, and videos to interact with others. So, mainly to socialise by sending text messages and emails.

Yes, I do, all the time almost P1, Male.

On the other hand, few participants reported that they did not share any content with friends that they do not know personally or with strangers.

Yeah, I am not going to share anything with strangers that I do not know. P4, Female.

I just kept it to myself. I think for security reasons because I store a lot of things on my phone like my contact list, and my photos. P4, Female.

This is in line with a survey that indicated that at least 82% do not share private pictures on WhatsApp or speak with persons who are not in their contact list. For various reasons, most users stated that they reject to talk with strangers on WhatsApp. While some users expressed concerns about the loss of personal information as well as about financial details, others stated that they just do not like to talk to strangers. Conversely, 27% of the usersclaimed to chat with people who are not on their contact lists. They used the likelihood that the unknown caller might be a friend, colleague, or member of their family who had lost his or her phone and was seeking to get in touch with them using his or her new phone number to defend their conduct. Some users described situations in which old friends or classmates attempted to reach them ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017). This might be due to the convenience of sharing content on smartphones and easy to do so, these things motivated the smartphone users to share different contents on their smartphones which might expose users to malware risk as it requires an Internet connection. Especially sharing content with strangers.

Sharing personal information on a smartphone

In the present study, most of the participants revealed that they share personal information with others. Interestingly, this is in bye results of a study which found that even though most of their participants do not trust the content they receive via WhatsApp, they do share personal information with it. The results suggested that employing less secure behaviours is not always linked to a lack of awareness among smartphone users ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017). As a result, the present study recommends focusing on factors that improve users' motivation to defend themselves from security risks.

Participants on the other hand indicated that they do not share any personal information for some reasons such as it is externally dangerous and scary as sharing personal information will expose users to malware risk.

Except for my name and my date of birth when I am at work, you know everything about you, on Facebook you know where you are, but not my address. It is externally dangerous and even though I do that, still I do not like the fact that anyone to look at it, even if it is private, anyone can still look at your profile. P15, Female.

Concerns about the privacy of personal data in connection with phone use

In the current study, most of the participants having concerns and worried about their data particularly their privacy, photos, and their messages in connection with phone use. Participants were conscious of the malware, and this is considered a good indication that they have a good awareness of the risk of sharing their smartphone contents with the Wi-Fi provider. Having such concerns about the privacy of personal data indicates that users have a positive attitude toward using smartphones.

The findings of the present research are also in line with reports in the literature such as a study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alani</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>172</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alani, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>172</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">172</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alani, Mohammed M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android Users Privacy Awareness Survey</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</full-title></periodical><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1865-7923</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alani, 2017) who found that photos and videos, which are the most private sort of data, placed first with 35.71%, whereas emails came next with 18.52%. With 17.18%, passwords kept on the phone came in third. According to their findings, most respondents are more concerned regarding the privacy of their photos and their videos than the security of the passwords kept on their devices. Online banking, SM account, and email passwords, and so on are all at risk of being lost, according to 82.82% of study respondents. Although these passwords are encrypted, linking this risk with unrestricted access to permissions for apps requesting access controls might result in serious privacy violations. In the other choice, some users mentioned app-specific data such as Facebook Messenger chats, Viber chats, and WhatsApp chats. Overall, the replies to the issue revealed that most smartphone users are unaware of appropriate data privacy priorities. Social media is widely used today and practically available to everyone. Hackers consider it a great opportunity and frequently target Facebook and WhatsApp among other social media platforms. Scams and phishing techniques have been reported in various examples on Facebook Messenger and other similar apps. Typically, scammers use Netflix premium free accounts to trick people into signing up for free memberships. It might request their account credentials in some circumstances. In doing so, they either obtain their login credentials or introduce malware into their computers, mobile devices, and web browsers in order to collect data and cookies, making the user a victim ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Khan</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>361</RecNum><DisplayText>(Khan et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>361</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1668018025">361</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Khan, Navid Ali</author><author>Brohi, Sarfraz Nawaz</author><author>Zaman, Noor</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Ten deadly cyber security threats amid COVID-19 pandemic</title></titles><dates><year>2020</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Khan et al., 2020). If users are careless about their privacy, so, this means that they are more inclined to be exposed to risks of malware and they have a negative attitude toward smartphone use.

Risks might encounter while installing apps on smartphonesThe current study indicated that most of the participants reported that they install apps on their smartphones and use them for different purposes. This finding is in line with a study done by Iqbal, (2017) who claimed that smartphones have made it possible for users to access and download apps for various purposes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Iqbal</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>171</RecNum><DisplayText>(Iqbal, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>171</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">171</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Iqbal, Shakeel</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile phone usage and students perception towards M-learning: A case of undergraduate students in Pakistan</title><secondary-title>The Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l&apos;ducation Distance</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Journal of Distance Education/Revue de l&apos;ducation Distance</full-title></periodical><volume>32</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>0830-0445</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Iqbal, 2017). Whereas, only one participant in the current study stated that he did not download apps on his smartphone as he said to not take up space. Most of the users stated that they use about (1-20) apps, a few of them used about 30 apps and only one installed greater than 50 apps on their smartphones. Users who install mobile apps on their smartphones are more likely to be exhibited and exposed to malware risk. Especially if they install more apps from third parties other than the trusted app providers.

The findings demonstrate that, while most people download and install apps from well-known sources like Google Play and App Store, some people also download and install apps from other sources. The vast majority, on the other hand, prefer to download apps through official platforms. The findings of a study by Mylonas, (2013) clearly show that users prefer to get apps from official repositories in general and a minority of users check the app developers. Also, ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>113</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harris et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>113</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">113</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harris, Mark A</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author><author>Brookshire, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile app installation: the role of precautions and desensitization</title><secondary-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>3</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1941-6679</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harris et al., 2015) report that only 26% of participants investigate the developer when they download apps. Downloading apps from unknown sources such as sites supplying software is less secure than installing apps from official app stores.

Moreover, evaluating the information that is available about developers is thought to be a good precaution because they might be a good indicator of security for the app ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>113</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harris et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>113</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">113</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harris, Mark A</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author><author>Brookshire, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile app installation: the role of precautions and desensitization</title><secondary-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>3</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1941-6679</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harris et al., 2015). A small percentage of users just verify the app developers to a limited extent, and the average score is only 3.23 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019).

Main criteria in choosing apps to download on users smartphones (App selection criteria)

This study revealed some app selection criteria such as price/cost, recommendation, developer, review, reputation, security/privacy, usefulness, usability, storage, efficiency, safe to use. Some of these factors significantly impact the decision of users, while other factors have less influence on the users decisions. Most of the participants revealed that they consider the cost, app reviews and app reputation, the usefulness of the app/ utility/ and its rating as the main criteria that they consider when choosing apps to install on their smartphones. Significantly, most of the participants reported that they consider only known developers or app providers whom they trust, and importantly, both the security and safety of the app. This result is to a report by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) who discovered that app developer, as well as security or privacy issues (for example, do not install an app because of the permissions might expose privacy of the user), were selected as an important criterion.

Criteria in choosing apps to install on a smartphone such as recommendation, developer, reading reviews, reputation, security/privacy and safe to use, all these criteria might mitigate the exposure to the malware risk if applied.

The awareness that there may be risks when installing apps

A further finding of the present study is that most of the participants were aware that there may be some risks when they install the apps on their smartphones, they still not using security mechanisms that they should use to fully protect their devices and that they perform risky behaviours. This is in line with the study which found that smartphone users are concerned about their security, however, they do not engage with the existed security mechanisms (Clarke et al., 2016). Similar results were reported by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Symantec</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>154</RecNum><DisplayText>(Symantec, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>154</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">154</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Symantec, INC</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Internet security threat report</title><secondary-title>Mountain View, CA:[sn]</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mountain View, CA:[sn]</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Symantec, 2014), the majority of smartphone users worry and concerned about their security and privacy, but yet they perform risky behaviours. In contrast, ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) indicated that smartphone users are not aware of the security and privacy risks related todownloading apps. In the current study, only one participant revealed that he thought that the App store is safe. Some participants showed that they are aware of the risks associated with the app installation, but they have not experienced any issues with the apps that they installed. Whereas other participants revealed that they trust the app developer such as the Play store and they think that the app is safe, and they do not think that there might be a risk when they install apps from them.

In the contrast, only one participant revealed that he thought that the App store is safe and that they were not aware of any risks that might encounter users when they install apps on the smartphone. Regarding the experiences of the participants, the findings reported that a few numbers of the participants experienced some issues while they are using some of the apps. Some of the participants found that the app was not working efficiently, and some found that these are unwanted/ invasive apps after they have installed them. Also, some found that the app does freeze or stopped their phone which made them uninstall these apps. Participants have reported that they uninstall, delete, or remove the app from their smartphones when such a thing happened. Some participants had deleted an app as they found that they are not useful or were not working. According to the findings of a report carried out by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019), users security awareness levels are generally low, and they need to develop significantly.

The group that is the oldest in age has the lowest number, followed by the younger group. The level of education has a positive impact on users awareness in general. IT knowledge is another aspect that contributes to smartphone users increased security awareness ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019). Thus, it is critical to understand how smartphone users perceive security and privacy. This will assist researchers in creating systems that protect the privacy, integrity, and accessibility of data saved on smartphones.

Apple is doing more effort to vet the app store and it is taking care of its users, iOS is usually considered more secure than Android due to its strict app review mechanism ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yao</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>306</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yao et al., 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>306</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666176954">306</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yao, Mei-Ling</author><author>Chuang, Ming-Chuen</author><author>Hsu, Chun-Cheng</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Kano model analysis of features for mobile security applications</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>336-346</pages><volume>78</volume><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Yao et al., 2018).

Awareness of permissions that apps ask for before app installation

All the participants in the qualitative study of this research have indicated that they are aware that apps will ask for permissions while the installation process. To get the most out of the installed apps and benefit from them, users have to agree to share their personal information which are requested by the app or grant it access to a variety of things ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jeon</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>84</RecNum><DisplayText>(Jeon et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>84</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1648120586">84</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jeon, Woongryul</author><author>Kim, Jeeyeon</author><author>Lee, Youngsook</author><author>Won, Dongho</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A practical analysis of smartphone security</title><secondary-title>Symposium on Human Interface</secondary-title></titles><pages>311-320</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Jeon et al., 2011). In a report by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hogben</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>89</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hogben &amp; Dekker, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>89</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">89</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hogben, Giles</author><author>Dekker, Marnix</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphones: Information security risks, opportunities and recommendations for users</title><secondary-title>European Network and Information Security Agency</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Network and Information Security Agency</full-title></periodical><volume>710</volume><number>01</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hogben & Dekker, 2010), users are encouraged to be aware of what apps can get access to, or operate on smartphones. In contrast, developers are increasingly adding a final EULA to notify and obtain user approval for app activities. This does not, however, ensure that the user reads and comprehends the contents. Despite these concerns, a work described by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>113</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harris et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>113</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">113</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harris, Mark A</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author><author>Brookshire, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile app installation: the role of precautions and desensitization</title><secondary-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>3</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1941-6679</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harris et al., 2015) investigates the installation of apps requesting excess permits considering that excess permissions may increase security risks and expose users to malicious vulnerabilities and risks. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Felt</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><DisplayText>(Felt et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>82</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">82</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Felt, Adrienne Porter</author><author>Ha, Elizabeth</author><author>Egelman, Serge</author><author>Haney, Ariel</author><author>Chin, Erika</author><author>Wagner, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android permissions: User attention, comprehension, and behavior</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the eighth symposium on usable privacy and security</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-14</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Felt et al., 2012) revealed that most users ignoredwarnings while app installation process. This result is in an accordance with the current study findings which found that most of the participants revealed that they do not pay attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process on their smartphones. In addition, another study by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Parker</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>198</RecNum><DisplayText>(Parker et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>198</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1652719100">198</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Parker, Fayyaadh</author><author>Ophoff, Jacques</author><author>Van Belle, Jean-Paul</author><author>Karia, Ross</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness and adoption of security controls by smartphone users</title><secondary-title>2015 Second international conference on information security and cyber forensics (InfoSec)</secondary-title></titles><pages>99-104</pages><dates><year>2015</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1467369888</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Parker et al., 2015) discovered that 82% of respondents did not read the licensing agreements. Some of them stated that they agreed to licensing agreements without reading them as they have no choice, and as they are too long so they skip some of these messages without paying any attention to them. Additionally, some of those users said that they consider reviews before agreeing on licensing agreements. And this result supports the finding of a study conducted by ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Chin</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>81</RecNum><DisplayText>(Chin et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>81</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">81</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chin, Erika</author><author>Felt, Adrienne Porter</author><author>Sekar, Vyas</author><author>Wagner, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Measuring user confidence in smartphone security and privacy</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the eighth symposium on usable privacy and security</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-16</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Chin et al., 2012), who stated that users do not pay attention to the present security guides such as privacy policy and EULA however, they depend on users feedback and reputations to demonstrate the security of the apps and their quality. Users who consider licensing agreements during the installation process of the app have a positive attitude toward smartphone use and this might help to mitigate the risks. On the other hand, ignoring licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process might expose users to malware risk. This is considered to be a vulnerability that interrupts the smartphone security trust model ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bagga</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>291</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bagga et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>291</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">291</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bagga, Teena</author><author>Sodhi, J</author><author>Shukla, B</author><author>Qazi, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone Security Behaviour of the Indian Smartphone User</title><secondary-title>Man In India</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Man In India</full-title></periodical><pages>333-344</pages><volume>97</volume><number>24</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bagga et al., 2017).

Another study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alani</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>172</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alani, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>172</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">172</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alani, Mohammed M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android Users Privacy Awareness Survey</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies</full-title></periodical><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1865-7923</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alani, 2017)revealed a significant lack of user awareness of their privacy. Only 35.71% pay attention to the permissions required by the apps and read them for each app. The results also revealed that 11.42% never paid attention to the permissions that the app requested, which is a potentially harmful practice. When a user ignoresreadingthe permission that required by the app, they arevoluntarily providing malicious software access to theirdevices. Users should be aware that there is no comprehensive monitoring and testing mechanism in place for all apps available on the Google Play Store. Another aspect asks users if they have ever rejected to install an app because of the requested permission. According to their answers, 22.8% have never rejected to download an app because of permissions requested. This number is still significant even though it is lower than the 77.2% who have declined to install an app due to its permissions. Users are more likely to obtain malware if they install apps without considering the advantages and disadvantages of each app.According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>113</RecNum><DisplayText>(Harris et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>113</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">113</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harris, Mark A</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author><author>Brookshire, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile app installation: the role of precautions and desensitization</title><secondary-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of International Technology and Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>3</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1941-6679</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Harris et al., 2015) only 26% of users look into the developers before installing an app. They looked at the installation of apps that requested very many permissions under the theory that too many permissions could increase security risk.

Awareness that some apps may capture information on users locations

The current study found that most of the participants are aware of that some apps may capture information on users locations. Most of them stated that this concerns them, and this was for different reasons. For example, privacy, violation of privacy, threatening privacy distraction, exposure, and upsetting. While others do not think that tracking is a risk factor. The results of this study are similar to previous research which indicated that about half of the participants are aware of some apps may capture information on users locations and used smartphone location services to find other people, according to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017). Users awareness that some phone apps may capture information on users location might mitigate the likelihood of exposure to malware risk. If the user is concerned about this point, they might be less likely to be vulnerable to malware risks.

Paying attention to the security messages that appear during the app installation process on the smartphone

Most participants indicated that they do pay attention to security messages that appear during installing apps on their smartphones, additionally, users who look at security messages are more likely to be familiar with smartphone malware and security apps.

Yah, I think so. So, things like tell you what permissions the app wants, or sort of things wants to have access to, yah, I think I intended to read these things. P8, Male.

whereas only a few stated that they do not pay attention to these messages as confirmed by this participant:

Just like most people, you do not get to read those messages. You just agree and on you go P13, Female.

The findings of the current study are similar to earlier research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Felt</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><DisplayText>(Felt et al., 2012; Kelley et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>82</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">82</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Felt, Adrienne Porter</author><author>Ha, Elizabeth</author><author>Egelman, Serge</author><author>Haney, Ariel</author><author>Chin, Erika</author><author>Wagner, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Android permissions: User attention, comprehension, and behavior</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the eighth symposium on usable privacy and security</secondary-title></titles><pages>1-14</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kelley</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><record><rec-number>66</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">66</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kelley, Patrick Gage</author><author>Consolvo, Sunny</author><author>Cranor, Lorrie Faith</author><author>Jung, Jaeyeon</author><author>Sadeh, Norman</author><author>Wetherall, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A conundrum of permissions: installing applications on an android smartphone</title><secondary-title>International conference on financial cryptography and data security</secondary-title></titles><pages>68-79</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Felt et al., 2012; Kelley et al., 2012); which indicated that users of smartphones were discovered to disregard security warnings while installing apps and that they were not able to understand the requested permissions andrisks associated. Therefore, this concludes that users who pay a good attention to security messages during the app installation process have a positive attitude toward smartphone use. However, users who do not consider such security messages might be exposed to security risks. As a result, users are encouraged not to ignore security messages during the app installation process.

Summary

This study underlined the most important feature of smartphones showing gender, age, and educational level differences. It discovered that because smartphones are always connected to the Internet and automatically connect to Wi-Fi, they are exposed to malware risks without being aware of it. Although most users keep their phones, many users replace them frequently to keep up with trends. Some participants recycle their smartphones or give them as gifts to loved ones.

Additionally, most userskeep their passwords and other sensitive information on their smartphones, which increases their vulnerability to identity theft. Some users were also not aware of how to activate security controls to protect against unauthorised access to their smartphones. Additionally, some smartphone users are conscious of their security and do not believe that their devices are safe enough to use bank apps, so instead of doing so, they access their accounts online, which may place them at greater risk than if they had used a smartphone app.

Although participants in the study were aware of smartphone security, they were keeping their confidential and sensitivedetails stored on their smartphones, including passwords, addresses, and phone numbers and bank details. Additionally, a few of the participants were unaware of the risks associated with storing passwords, and many of them had not yet implemented any security measures. Many of the participants use SM and save the password on their phones, and most of them download social apps without reading the agreement license. For the most part, participants do not use paired apps to protect themselves against possible risks. Users of smartphones should not disclose or reveal theirprivate information or certain content to others.

Although smartphone users have good knowledge of the risks they may face when using their smartphones, as was mentioned above, they nonetheless engage in a variety of risky behaviours that could increase the likelihood of data security breaches and unintentional breaches. As a result, it is crucial to take security behaviours into account while creating solutions and raising user awareness of data security breaches. Knowledge of information security may have an impact on how smartphone users use information, lowering the risks associated with information security when using a smartphone. Even so, the study's findings will offer some important information that could be useful in enhancing awareness of behaviours related to smartphone use and information security. Such data might help in the creation of appropriate strategies and policies.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

Introduction

This chapter draws conclusions based on the quantitative and qualitative data information gained by highlighting the contributions to knowledge this research makes. Additionally, the strengths and limitations of the present research are highlighted. The chapter also provides recommendations and future work in the related areas.

Thesis ContributionsThe current research can be considered novel in many ways. Smartphone popularity and functionality growth make these devices attractive targets for criminals. The device itself, but more importantly the data it stores, makes for a valuable attack target. Therefore, it is crucial for smartphone users to take security precautions against risks that could come from potential criminals or negligence on their part. Previous discussion or investigation of security awareness has generally focused onthesecurityawarenesslevel of computer users, only alimitednumber of them have focused onsmartphonesecurity, which has a different user behaviour pattern than normal computers ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McGill</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>167</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bitton et al., 2018; McGill &amp; Thompson, 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>167</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166470">167</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McGill, Tanya</author><author>Thompson, Nik</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Old risks, new challenges: exploring differences in security between home computer and mobile device use</title><secondary-title>Behaviour &amp; Information Technology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Behaviour &amp; Information Technology</full-title></periodical><pages>1111-1124</pages><volume>36</volume><number>11</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>0144-929X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Bitton</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>290</RecNum><record><rec-number>290</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">290</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bitton, Ron</author><author>Finkelshtein, Andrey</author><author>Sidi, Lior</author><author>Puzis, Rami</author><author>Rokach, Lior</author><author>Shabtai, Asaf</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Taxonomy of mobile users&apos; security awareness</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>266-293</pages><volume>73</volume><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bitton et al., 2018; McGill & Thompson, 2017). In addition, previous studies have rarely examined the smartphone security from both school and university context. Also, the current research focuses on age groups from 12-35 together of which are newly discovered and have not been discussed in the literature before. Finally, it has investigated smartphone security awareness among school pupils and university students at the same time, using mixed methods. Therefore, the current research extends the scope of the field by addressing some recommendations.

Most of the previous studies have tried to improve security awareness from different perspectives. However, this study has focused on users smartphone security awareness particularly; knowledge, experience, and behaviour. And added the experience to the model in Figure 2-1. It also focused on the users attitudes toward smartphone usage.

The smartphone is becoming one of the most convenient devices with a wide range of features. By connecting users to the Internet, these devices give users access to a wide range of features, including browsing the web, accessing social networks, storing data,sending, and receiving messages and emails, shopping online, GPS navigation, and many more. These devices have a wide range of business uses in addition to being utilised for personal purposes.

According to the demographic analysis, every user who took part in the study had a smartphone. This outlines the importance and popularity of smartphones among populations of school and university students.

Because of these features of smartphones and their widespread, users store significant sensitive information on these devices which needs to be protected. Smartphone information security can be achieved by using security mechanisms installing such as antivirus, using robust passwords, and data encryption. Although some smartphones come with security software, users do not use them or do not know how to use them. This study was conducted to shed light on smartphone security-related issues. And to identify the factors that affect smartphone security awareness and discover any differences by the demographic factors- if there are any-.

The study discovered those users security awareness in particular their knowledge, experience, and behaviour, and found that these aspects could affect them. Also, it was found that demographic factors such as age, gender, and education level were influential factors.

This research has made several contributions to the knowledge. First, this study examined smartphone users security awareness from distinct perspectives including age, gender, and level of education. The existing studies related to smartphone awareness are limited and needs to be more focused. Therefore, this study attempted to provide information on how people use their smartphones, specifically among schools and university students.

Secondly, the present study addressed smartphone users security awareness from a wide range of demographic perspectives. The research provided information related to smartphone users behaviour, knowledge, and experience, as well as their attitudes toward smartphone usage and the security features they use, such as locking mechanisms, app usage, smartphone locations service, and mobile instant messages. Although, some researchers examined the awareness of smartphone users few of them have used mixed-methods to provide in-depth information related to risky behaviour. Thirdly, it offers valuable information to the knowledge highlighting the key features related to risky behaviours that may put the users. This information is beneficial to smartphone users and developers. Fourth, this study highlights various security and privacy-related behaviours that expose smartphone users to malware risks.

One of the primary implications of the current study would involve smartphone users, security specialists, and educators, IT support systems at the schools and the university. Information security experts and information security educators could create and implementmore effective and moreeffective security plans and policies by focusing on the related factors that have significant effects on users security awareness. For example, to make users more aware of the risks associated with smartphone usage, educational programs could be created that change users perceptions regarding the usefulness of security mechanisms. And smartphone users could be educated about issues and consequences of security breaches on their smartphones. And this will give them an awareness of the risks that might face while using their smartphones.

The awareness programs could be spread through influential media such as the Internet through social media accounts, and websites of the school and university. The designers of information security programs and information security specialists could create plans to show the importance of policies that could better protect users privacy and safety from risks. Such programs could affect users awareness than their behaviour toward security technologies usage. Individual and public networks would be more secure and smartphone users could reduce information security breaches, which have been proven to be costly and destructive. Moreover, this study introduced a better understating of smartphone usage among users through insights into the nature of the smartphone security awareness aspects related to knowledge, experience, and behaviour. And it could be applied in the field of information security to help users stay safe from risks and threats.

Strengths and weaknesses of this studyThe present study had some strengths. First, using the mixed methods approach. More information was identified regarding smartphone usage risk-related issues. The qualitative study provided in-depth information related to the risk of malware and how the users could be exposed to them.

Second, the research was conducted on a good range of participants comping school-aged pupils, UG students, and PG students from university-level at Scotland in the U.K, as most studied in the literature, were conducted at various locations up to researchers knowledge.Third, the researcher was able to compare behaviour patterns and assess the users security awareness as well as explored participants experiences and attitudes toward smartphone usage.Fourth, using the mixed-methods approach in this research enabled the researcher to overcome the weaknesses of using each method separately. However, as with any study the current study has some weaknesses such as the survey design limited the researchers ability to calculate the malware risk that the users might be exposed to. Also, the survey design was limited and therefore this study recommends using the Likert scale for more variation in the information. Another weakness related to the qualitative part was that access to school-age pupils was not possible. The sample size was sufficient to determine the significant results, however, it is not clear how the biases of recruitment to the study will affect the findings, particularly in the qualitative study.

In addition, the literature was updated and the results have been put in context of up-to-date literature. This study was done only in Scotland though from alignment with many results in the literature there is no reason to believe there are peculiarities of Scotland.

Recommendation for smartphone users to reduce their exposure to cyber attacksThis section highlights some recommendations for smartphone users to have safe behaviour when they are using their smartphones. The followings are some of the rules that smartphone users may follow to ensure their behaviour, do not put their security and privacy at risk.

Recommendation for schools and universities:

Based on the results of this study, it is recommended a compulsory security training for students in early high school. This will help increase their awareness of potential risks associated with their smartphone usage and how to protect themselves from such risks and threats. Studies found that this training has a huge impact on increasing students awareness such as ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019).

Additionally, users might be educated on the risks with and consequences of significant security breaches on their devices.

Recommendation for the public:

Smartphone users are recommended to not add strangers as friends or share/accept content from them and to use antivirus software and firewalls and make sure that every photo, post, or status you upload on SM does not put you at risk of being hacked. Do not leave their smartphones GPS on all the time; instead, switch it on only when they need it. Also, they are recommended to have some security advice: smartphone users who had advice on information security will be less likely to be vulnerable to malicious attacks or malware risks and threats. In addition, to be wary of harmful links, fake movies, and photos shared on SM by strangers. Also, be aware of links and photos posted by your friends, as they could have been infected with an "auto-sharing virus" in their apps. And to be careful while sharing personal or sensitive information on their smartphone or through SM and make sure their smartphones have adequate Internet security installed.

Furthermore, limit the number of apps you allow to use your personal information on your device do not Allow Wi-Fi to connect to networks automatically. You should not leave Wi-Fi or Bluetooth on if you do not use them. Turn off file sharing. Also, when you are finished with an account, log out. To keep public Wi-Fi connections confidential, use a VPN like Norton Secure VPN.Providing security by using "strong" passwords or passphrases and using data encryption if the smartphone gives this option.And finally, do not follow a link contained within emails.

Future WorkEven with the limitations acknowledged in this study, the current study has demonstrated different directions for future work opportunities which are made in addition to the limitations.

It would be useful to conduct an international questionnaire survey on smartphone users security awareness to compare behaviours/ experiences and knowledge in similar fields or departments to improve knowledge and understanding of similarities and differences among nations and to identify the factors underlying this diversity.

The current study was limited to school and university students, so future research should consider other smartphone users in other educational levels or academics such as primary school level, or researchers comparing their security awareness with those of school and university students.

An area for investigation would be including investigations in other nations that are at a similar time of mobile trade, as well as cross-national studies comparing users experience to verify and extend present results as the current research was limited to a single country (the UK).

It would also be useful to investigate when to consider information out of date or obsolete and to determine the timescale on which information or data should be renewed or updated in any field.

An important area of investigation is exploring the risk using quantitative study taking into consideration balancebetween the variables so the statistical weight can be equal for the important variables to measure the risk.

A fundamental topic of study would be the different behaviours of smartphone users when installing apps.

An additional area worth investigating is how smartphones are used as educational tools in the context of school and university level.

Future work could be done with increasing the sample size by including university students from other institutions, as well as looking into another factor in students smartphone information security behaviours.

Using complementary methods such as focus groups to collect individual accounts and eliminate the possibility of groupthink.

Another valuable line of research might be using similar approaches in different environments such as diverse cultures and age groups older than 35 years old.

Regarding the experience of using smartphone apps, further investigation is needed to understand more about the measures that app developers should take to ensure the security of the information hold on the smartphones.

Also, there is scope for further investigation of how parents could monitor and control their kids screen time and smartphone usage.

Exploring the risk using quantitative study taking into consideration balancebetween the variables so the statistical weight can be equal for the important variables to measure the risk.

More research can be done with increasing the sample size by including university students from other institutions, as well as looking into another factor in students smartphone information security behaviours.

The current research was limited to a single country (the UK). Further research could include investigations in other nations that are at a similar time of mobile trade, as well as cross-national studies comparing users experience, to verify and extend present results.

Using similar approaches in different environments such as diverse cultures and age groups older than 25 years old.

Using complementary methods such as focus groups to collect individual accounts and eliminate the possibility of groupthink would be another area of interest for further work.

Moreover, this study could be replicated with different data collection methods and different data analysis.

There is a need to conduct a study to examine the relationships between knowledge, experience and behaviour of smartphone users which might find how users knowledge and experience affect their behaviours.

This study was carried out with the assistance of 346 volunteer respondents for the survey and 18 volunteers for the interview from various population groups. It is possible to conduct the same study again with more individuals to generalise the findings.

The study can be expanded with more questions to investigate further aspects of smartphone security. this study was conductedbased on usersknowledge, experience, and behaviour. This research can be expanded tounderstand the reasons of these users knowledge, experience, and behaviours.

Additionally, because the current study was conducted from the perspectives of individuals, it can be expanded to include organisations to better understand the level of security awareness among users who use their smartphones for team-based projects or for business.

Thesis conclusion

As smartphone users, everyone is exposed to security risks during our daily life ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alavi</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>333</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alavi &amp; Buttlar, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>333</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666184585">333</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alavi, Amir H</author><author>Buttlar, William G</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>An overview of smartphone technology for citizen-centered, real-time and scalable civil infrastructure monitoring</title><secondary-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Future Generation Computer Systems</full-title></periodical><pages>651-672</pages><volume>93</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>0167-739X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alavi & Buttlar, 2019). When downloading a mobile app, the app may have been implanted with malicious code. As a result, the security of smartphones is a crucially essential problem that necessitates research from academia and industry to look at its implications, as well as protection from a variety of mobile security threats ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wang</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>332</RecNum><DisplayText>(Wang &amp; Lee, 2020; Xiao, 2021)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>332</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666184116">332</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wang, Xiaohui</author><author>Lee, Kwan Min</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The paradox of technology innovativeness and risk perceptionsA profile of Asian smartphone users</title><secondary-title>Telematics and Informatics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Telematics and Informatics</full-title></periodical><pages>101415</pages><volume>51</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0736-5853</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Xiao</Author><Year>2021</Year><RecNum>334</RecNum><record><rec-number>334</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666184704">334</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Xiao, Quan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Understanding the asymmetric perceptions of smartphone security from security feature perspective: A comparative study</title><secondary-title>Telematics and Informatics</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Telematics and Informatics</full-title></periodical><pages>101535</pages><volume>58</volume><dates><year>2021</year></dates><isbn>0736-5853</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Wang & Lee, 2020; Xiao, 2021).

This study reviewed the literature related to the security awareness of smartphone users. It was found that there is limited information about the users awareness of using their smartphones. The study used a mixed-methods approach to answer the research questions. As a first method, a survey was used, and semi-structured interviews were conducted as the second method in this research. From the quantitative study, there were 346 respondents from Kyle Academy, Carrick Academy, and the University of Strathclyde in Scotland in the UK. Also, in the qualitative study, 18 participants took part in this interview from the University of Strathclyde.

This study highlighted the most important feature of smartphones showing gender, age, and educational level differences. This research has gained insights into risky behaviour by using mixed methods to provide efficient information related to factors/ variables that place users at risk. Most of the participants had a good understanding and awareness of the threats that they might be expose to while they are using their smartphones. Their risky behaviour was influenced by security awareness including knowledge, attitude, and experience. For operating systems gender, age, and level of education are used as distinguishing features.The participants malware knowledge of threats was underlined by several questions to evaluate the participants awareness. The gender differences were clear in taking steps to keep themselves safe from online risks and threats, turning off their GPS, and parental control. Age also influenced knowledge; surprisingly younger generation was taking more precautions to keep themselves safe in comparison to the older generation. The participants experience had an impact on the older generation and the university students. The smartphone users behaviour was influenced by age and gender and level of education in the above-mentioned features (behaviour).

Regarding the malware risks, this study indicated that smartphone users are facing threats without knowing because they are connected to the Internet continually and automatically. Most users store their personal and critical information such as their address, bank account details, and password on their phones which may put them at risk of identity theft. It was found that most smartphone users have changed their phones following the trends, while the rest have either kept them, or recycled them or even given them as gifts to member of the family. Additionally, some users were unaware of using security control to protect themselves from unauthorised access to their phones. This is in line with the findings of ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Al-Nemrat</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>337</RecNum><DisplayText>(Al-Nemrat et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>337</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1666604726">337</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Al-Nemrat, Ameer</author><author>Jahankhani, Hamid</author><author>Preston, David S</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Cybercrime victimisations/criminalisation and punishment</title><secondary-title>International Conference on Global Security, Safety, and Sustainability</secondary-title></titles><pages>55-62</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Al-Nemrat et al., 2010) who found that many people are not aware of theonline risks, and many do not use preventative measures to protect themselves from risk when they are using the internet. While other users are aware of smartphone security and they do not trust that the smartphones are secure enough to use bank apps they use the web bank, and this may put them at risk more than using the smartphone app.Not trusting banking app show a lack of knowledge as these apps are developed securely.

Even though the awareness shown by some participants, they were storing their sensitive information like passwords, addresses, bank details and phone numbers, where many of them did not adopt any protection mechanisms and they downloaded apps without reading the agreement license and kept the password on their phones. Many of the participants do not use paired apps to protect themselves from any threats. And from this it is clearly found that there are several risks associated with the behaviour around security awareness that may increase the potential for data security breaches and informal violations. Consequently, it is essential to consider security behaviours to develop solutions and enhance users awareness of data security breaches. Information security knowledge may play a role in influencing smartphone users information behaviours by reducing the risks that might be associated to it. The studys conclusion provides some key information that may be valuable in improving security awareness and such information might assist in the development of suitable strategies and policies.

The findings showed a lack of trust and understanding of security procedures, especially when selling devices and installing apps.

Overall, the findings of this study provide a good understanding of the security awareness of smartphone users and contribute to the knowledge by providing information regarding smartphone users security awareness by demographic factors including age, gender, and level of education.

Smartphone users lacked security awareness in adopting secsoft, and their behaviour was risky in keeping personal information on their devices without a protection mechanism; however, they displayed better awareness in disabling location services, not sharing personal information with strangers, and thinking about certain criteria before installing apps, which may be due to their prior experience, like losing a phone or having it stolen. Overall, the smartphone users were exposed to risk in their everyday life as they are constantly and automatically connected to the internet, and most likely to experience security risks. Differences were found within the demographic factors such gender, age, level of education in taking steps to keep themselves safe from online risks and threats and no significant results were found in some users knowledge, experience, and behaviour.

This study recommends that platform designers and app developers should take further steps to help users preserve their security and their privacy. Smartphones come in different shapes and sizes, and users come from various demographics, technological knowledge, preferences, and level of education. As a result, platform designers must consider these variances and decreases the risks behaviours associated to smartphone users.

The conclusions of the study can be summarized in the following points:

The overall security awareness of the users in this study is not at a satisfactory level and needs to be improved in some respects. Such as when users think that security is not essential and when they aware of the existing security software but do not adopt any. Even users show awareness they still at risk.

Females were more likely to have iPhones while males were interested in Android devices.

There is a gender, age and level of education differences in some respects as shown in 4.8.

In terms of age, the oldest group has the better awareness level followed by the youngest group.

The group of university level has a better awareness level, which indicates that the education is very important for security awareness.

This study gained new insights into risky behaviour, and it shows that it is continue. When users do not lock their smartphones with a PIN or passwords. And when they do not use a security software or do not update the existing one when a new version is developed. When they do not install a mobile anti-virus program. Also, risky behaviour can be found when users do not encrypt confidential information for bank account details. Also, when users store sensitive information on their smartphone and do not care about the security. Another one when users ignore security messages of apps before installing them on their smartphones and when they install pirated apps. Users showed a positive attitude when they show a concern of their privacy and security, and when they concerned about sharing their personal information online and when storing sensitive data on their smartphones. Negative attitudes were shown when users sensitive data be dangerous for them and for their data if someone get unauthorised access to their phones. concerned about their phones if they got lost.

Different aspects were found to be related to smartphone security awareness. Some of them are shown in Figure 7-1.

-6305554719320Figure STYLEREF 1 s 7 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 1: Aspects related to smartphone security awareness00Figure STYLEREF 1 s 7 SEQ Figure * ARABIC s 1 1: Aspects related to smartphone security awareness-630555367030Smartphone security awareness

Data protection and privacy

Sharing personal information

Authorization

Attacks

Using trusted app repository

Keeping GPS off when not in use

Vulnerabilities

Storing sensitive data

Adopting security mechanisms

00Smartphone security awareness

Data protection and privacy

Sharing personal information

Authorization

Attacks

Using trusted app repository

Keeping GPS off when not in use

Vulnerabilities

Storing sensitive data

Adopting security mechanisms

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HYPERLINK "https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7212/" hhttps://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7212/Mai, P. T., & Tick, A. (2021). Cyber Security Awareness and behavior of youth in smartphone usage: A comparative study between university students in Hungary and Vietnam. Acta PolytechnicaHungarica, 18(8), 67-89. 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(2023). Cyberbullying, Digital Footprint, and Cyber Security Awareness Levels of Secondary School Students. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 7(2), 129-151. HYPERLINK "https://www.ijtes.net/index.php/ijtes/article/view/471" hhttps://www.ijtes.net/index.php/ijtes/article/view/471Taha, N., & Dahabiyeh, L. (2021). College students information security awareness: a comparison between smartphones and computers. Education and Information Technologies, 26(2), 1721-1736. 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HYPERLINK "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341077255_Mobile_Information_Security_Awareness_Among_Students_in_Higher_Education_An_Exploratory_Study" hhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/341077255_Mobile_Information_Security_Awareness_Among_Students_in_Higher_Education_An_Exploratory_StudyTawalbeh, L. A., Muheidat, F., Tawalbeh, M., &Quwaider, M. (2020). IoT Privacy and security: Challenges and solutions. Applied Sciences, 10(12), 4102. https://www.mdpi.com/743086Venter, I. M., Blignaut, R. J., Renaud, K., & Venter, M. A. (2019). Cyber security education is as essential as the three R's. Heliyon, 5(12), e02855. HYPERLINK "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844019365144" hhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844019365144Wang, X. (2022). Exploring Chinese college students' awareness of information security in the COVID-19 era. European Journal of Education, 5(2), 20-34. HYPERLINK "https://revistia.org/index.php/ejed/article/view/5951" hhttps://revistia.org/index.php/ejed/article/view/5951AppendixesAppendix (1): Summary of related studies to this research

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 1: Summary of the important studies related to this researchStudy Source Research objectives Method/

Population Factors

investigated Outcomes Limitation and recommendations

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Breitinger</Author><Year>2020</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(Breitinger et al., 2020)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643736168">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Breitinger, Frank</author><author>Tully-Doyle, Ryan</author><author>Hassenfeldt, Courtney</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on smartphone users security choices, awareness and education</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>101647</pages><volume>88</volume><dates><year>2020</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Breitinger et al., 2020)

Investigate user preferences, awareness, and education with regards to cybersecurity. Quantitative: Survey questionnaire

Age,

Gender, highest level of education and country of residency Most users have their phones' lock screens properly set to prevent physical access. Users should also not use a VPN when accessing a public Wi-Fi network or turning off unnecessary functions. Smartphones are less protected than desktop computers, and fewer third-party security apps are installed. A number of interesting areas for further investigation were suggested:

the responses to queries concerning security software on PCs and smartphones.

The opinions of users regarding the priorities of manufacturers smartphones and their operating systems.

Users appear to be careless about their data than they do about their actual devices.

To conduct a research on more representative cross-section by demographics

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Andone</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>293</RecNum><DisplayText>(Andone et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>293</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">293</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Andone, Ionut</author><author>Baszkiewicz, Konrad</author><author>Eibes, Mark</author><author>Trendafilov, Boris</author><author>Montag, Christian</author><author>Markowetz, Alexander</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How age and gender affect smartphone usage</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2016 ACM international joint conference on pervasive and ubiquitous computing: adjunct</secondary-title></titles><pages>9-12</pages><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Andone et al., 2016)

investigating the effect of differences in gender and age on smartphone usage. Mixed methods

Qualitative: interviews

Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 30,677 Gender and age, The amount and type of phone and app usage is significantly influenced by age and gender.

Younger people are using smartphones for entertainment and communication.

Older people use them as a source of information, reminders, and a regular phone.

Smartphone usage is higher among women than men. For future research they recommended to include elements such asphone locks and unlocks, mobility pattern, app download, and activity pattern.

It is also important to look into how personality and education may influence phone usage in addition to age and gender.

This study was limited to age and gender and ignored the usage experience, did not take into consideration the level of education.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hossain</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>283</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hossain &amp; Ahmed, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>283</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">283</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hossain, Md Emran</author><author>Ahmed, SM Zabed</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Academic use of smartphones by university students: a developing country perspective</title><secondary-title>The Electronic Library</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Electronic Library</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hossain & Ahmed, 2016)

Investigate smartphone usage for academic purposes by students. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 316 students Faculty/

institute,

Age,

gender,

level of education,

Place of origin, and

duration of smartphone use. Smartphones were utilised by most university students for academic purposes.

They viewed academic smartphone use positively on average.

There were some differences in terms of gender, age, place of origin, and duration of smartphone use. Recommendation

No recommendation was provided

Limitation

Only one method of collecting data used.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nowrin</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>276</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nowrin &amp; Bawden, 2018)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>276</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">276</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Nowrin, Shohana</author><author>Bawden, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Information security behaviour of smartphone users</title><secondary-title>Information and Learning Science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information and Learning Science</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2018</year></dates><isbn>2398-5348</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nowrin & Bawden, 2018) Conduct an empirical investigation of the smartphone usage ofUniversity studentsto protect theirinformation security. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 348 Age,

Gender, and

Faculties/ Institutions A set of measures were identifiedto lower the risks ofinformation security such as:

Authorization check.

Disabling Bluetooth and GPS.

Awareness when using public Wi-Fi.

Installation of appropriate antivirus software.

Update systems regularly. Recommendation

A larger study, with students from other universities and other countries, could be done to acquire a better understanding of students' information security behaviour.

Limitation

Due to a lack of time, the study excludes all other universities in Bangladesh and only included the University of Dhaka.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Esmaeili</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>284</RecNum><DisplayText>(Esmaeili, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>284</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">284</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Esmaeili, Mohammadjafar</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Assessment of users&apos; information security behavior in smartphone networks</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Esmaeili, 2014) To suggest a model to better understand the impact of the factors on security behaviour and the use of security solutions on smartphone networks. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: convenient sampling along with snowball sampling 593. Age,

Gender,

Education level,

number of education years after high school,

major,

school,

employment,

years of employment,

Smartphone ownership,

and years of smartphone use. The security awareness and experience gained on PCs leads to a better secure behaviour on the mobile platform. Recommendation

larger sample size with different ages could be tested.

Employ the developed model to investigate the impact of additional factors on users' security behaviour.

Emphasize on other security technologies such as the use of encryptions, and secure Internet browsing.

Establish policies and training programmes to focus on the factors affecting users' security behaviour.

Finally, future research could concentrate on and uncover other factors that affect information security behaviour in smartphone networks.

Limitation

Create a survey in which the questions are presented in a random order to avoid bias in the anticipation of the questions.

Could rephrase and rearrange negative and positive questions.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lazou</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>281</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lazou &amp; Weir, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>281</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">281</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lazou, Apollonia</author><author>Weir, George</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceived risk and sensitive data on mobile devices</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0947649786</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Lazou & Weir, 2011) To learn more about smartphone users' degree of information security awareness and the amount of sensitive data they normally keep on their devices. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 79 participants Age,

Gender,

Type of smartphone

Level of education,

Occupation, and

level of awareness. 7.14 percent of respondents use a mobile device to manage their finances.

Respondents' mobile devices hold a variety of sensitive personal and business data daily.

User awareness is extremely poor amongst the survey participants.

According to the survey, more than half of mobile device owners (53 percent) do not use passwords to protect their devices. Recommendations

users are advisedto use the security mechanisms built into their mobile devices to alleviate the risks associated with storing personal information.

Limitation

Small sample size.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Anshari</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(Anshari et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Anshari, Muhammad</author><author>Alas, Yabit</author><author>Hardaker, Glenn</author><author>Jaidin, JH</author><author>Smith, Mark</author><author>Ahad, Annie D</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone habit and behavior in Brunei: Personalization, gender, and generation gap</title><secondary-title>Computers in Human Behavior</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers in Human Behavior</full-title></periodical><pages>719-727</pages><volume>64</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0747-5632</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Anshari et al., 2016) To investigate the effects of smartphone usage on smartphone users behaviour. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 589 Bruneians

Age,

Gender,

Income,

Education,

Occupation, district, and

Computer skills. Prevalence of smartphone use, as well as habits and behaviour related to smartphone use, particularly among the younger generation of social problems such as nomophobia and phubbing.

In addition to documenting smartphone users' experiences, the study investigates personality traits associated with smartphone use, trends among different age groups, and the effects of smartphone usage on the environment. Recommendation

Not available

Limitation

It has limitations in that it only reflects stated views with no external validity.

The imbalance of people polled from different districts could be a second issue.

Finally, it should be noted that the findings apply exclusively to the social backgrounds of the survey respondents (i.e. Bruneians), and hence may differ for different peoples and cultures.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Chandramohan</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>286</RecNum><DisplayText>(Chandramohan &amp; Tan, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>286</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">286</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chandramohan, Mahinthan</author><author>Tan, Hee Beng Kuan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Detection of mobile malware in the wild</title><secondary-title>Computer</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer</full-title></periodical><pages>65-71</pages><volume>45</volume><number>9</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>0018-9162</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Chandramohan & Tan, 2012)

To investigate the security risks that may arise while downloading dangerous apps to a smartphone. Quantitative: Survey

presented a study of techniques for detecting mobile malware in the wild, discussed the limitations of current techniques, and offered some recommendations for protecting smartphones from potential security concerns. Not provided

Add limitation

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Das</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>285</RecNum><DisplayText>(Das &amp; Khan, 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>285</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">285</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Das, Amit</author><author>Khan, Habib Ullah</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security behaviors of smartphone users</title><secondary-title>Information &amp; Computer Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information &amp; Computer Security</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2016</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Das & Khan, 2016) To examine the information security behaviours of smartphone users in a Middle Eastern economy with a thriving economy. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 500 smartphone users Age

Gender The level of security behaviour is low.

Smartphone users are currently more concerned about malware and data leaks than targeted data theft. Recommendation

Threats and countermeasures develop with time, therefore conclusions describing the current state of smartphone security will need to be revised in the future.

Actions to enhance smartphone users' security behaviours are urgently required. According to the findings, such approaches should be effective and moderately cost-efficient.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kim</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>254</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kim, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>254</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">254</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kim, Eyong B</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Recommendations for information security awareness training for college students</title><secondary-title>Information Management &amp; Computer Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Information Management &amp; Computer Security</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0968-5227</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kim, 2014) To establish effective information security awareness training, a survey of the state of information security awareness among college students at a New England university was conducted (ISAT). Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 357 UG and graduate students ISAT is important and necessary for college students, although many of them do not take part in it.

Security themes not usually addressed by installed (or built-in) programmes or web sites, on the other hand, have a strong link to information security knowledge.

Students appear to have piecemeal learnt security principles from a variety of sources. Not provided

Add limitation f ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Markelj</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>280</RecNum><DisplayText>(Markelj &amp; Bernik, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>280</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">280</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Markelj, Bla</author><author>Bernik, Igor</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Safe use of mobile devices arises from knowing the threats</title><secondary-title>journal of information security and applications</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>journal of information security and applications</full-title></periodical><pages>84-89</pages><volume>20</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>2214-2126</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Markelj & Bernik, 2015) To determine the knowledge of the use of mobile devices Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 281 Cyber-workplace safety is dependent on users' awareness of dangers and their ability to respond appropriately.

User awareness should be increased, users should be informed of hazards, and users should receive appropriate training on cyberspace work safety.

Respondents had a weak understanding of the subject.

Respondents have a poor understanding of mobile device dangers.

They are familiar with generic threats, but not with specific, more intricate threats, such as those that are most prevalent. The same can be said for the app of security features. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jones</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(Jones &amp; Chin, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1644403356">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jones, Beth H</author><author>Chin, Amita Goyal</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>On the efficacy of smartphone security: A critical analysis of modifications in business students practices over time</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Information Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Information Management</full-title></periodical><pages>561-571</pages><volume>35</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>0268-4012</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Jones & Chin, 2015) Investigate on the efficacy of UG college students' smartphone security behaviours.

College students were chosen because they represent a demographic of people who are often early adopters of mobile technologies. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 197

Major,

Gender,

Age bracket,

Year in school,

Type of cell

Phone.

Type of operating system It uses a survey instrument to measure UG student use of smartphone security practises in 2014 and compares the results to those obtained in 2011 using the same survey instrument.

While more students have smartphones and a bigger percentage utilise them for financial purposes, dangerous conduct persists and, in some situations, has deteriorated, according to the findings.

When appropriate security procedures are not followed, they lose their effectiveness, leaving users more vulnerable than before. Limitations

To begin, they merely looked at students' assessments of their own conduct and security methods. These views, on the other hand, may differ dramatically from the students' real, practised conduct.

Recommendations

Design a larger study that includes qualitative data collecting in the form of follow-up interviews with the students.

Examination of their smartphones to ensure that security settings and protections are in place. Because the subjects were all students taking business classes at the same university, the results' generalizability was limited.

Polling a wider number of students in various regions is a future research direction. Other groups, such as university academics and administrators, as well as IT and other professions, could be questioned.

The work could be expanded to include tablets in the future to see what level of security precautions are taken when utilising these additional mobile devices.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Androulidakis</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>288</RecNum><DisplayText>(Androulidakis &amp; Kandus, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>288</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">288</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Proceedings">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Androulidakis, Iosif</author><author>Kandus, Gorazd</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A survey on saving personal data in the mobile phone</title><secondary-title>2011 Sixth International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security</secondary-title></titles><pages>633-638</pages><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>IEEE</publisher><isbn>1457709791</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Androulidakis & Kandus, 2011) Giving valuable insight into the practise of storing personal data on mobile phones.

They are also looking at the impact it has on students' security awareness, feelings, and habits, and have discovered that there is a statistically significant link. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 7172 students

Sex,

Age and field of studies,

Mobile phone usage,

Connection type and budget spent monthly on phone service. Users save personal data in their mobile phones often, according to this survey (which used Pearson's Chi Square). The ratio of users who save personal data vs. those who do not (Personal Data Saving Ratio-PSDR) reveals statistically significant differences in well-defined user groups.

Users who save personal data the most include those who backup less than once a month (78%), those who download programmes (73%), students in "Other" than the categories of schools polled (71%), users who own an LG phone (71%), and finally those aged 24-26. (71%). Recommendation

Aside from identifying the reality, creating a foundation for the development of comparable surveys could be a future goal.

No limitation

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Koyuncu</Author><Year>2019</Year><RecNum>282</RecNum><DisplayText>(Koyuncu &amp; Pusatli, 2019)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>282</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">282</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koyuncu, Murat</author><author>Pusatli, Tolga</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Security awareness level of smartphone users: An exploratory case study</title><secondary-title>Mobile Information Systems</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Mobile Information Systems</full-title></periodical><volume>2019</volume><dates><year>2019</year></dates><isbn>1574-017X</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Koyuncu & Pusatli, 2019) Examines smartphone users' awareness of several security-related parameters and compares the levels of awareness of different user groups based on demographic data. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 155 participants

Gender,

Age,

Level of education, and

IT security knowledge The overall awareness level of the participants is not at a satisfactory level and needs improvement.

In terms of age, the oldest group (>50) has the lowest awareness level followed by the youngest group (<21).

The group with a BS or higher education degree has a higher level of awareness, which can be interpreted as a sign of how important education is for cybersecurity.

The group that has received IT security training has the highest degree of awareness, which is yet another proof of the necessity of cybersecurity training.

Results of this study indicate that risky behaviour among users continues, and there is no clear improvement on their security awareness level. Recommendations

The study can be expanded to learn more about the causes for such users' actions.

Furthermore, while this survey was conducted from the perspective of individuals, it can be expanded to include businesses to better understand user security awareness when using their smartphones for business or any other effort that requires collaboration.

No limitation provided

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mylonas</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>5</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mylonas et al., 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="e0vxfpx0oxx9w4e0vdlv0ptmwt0fxat9ewrv" timestamp="1643028166">5</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mylonas, Alexios</author><author>Kastania, Anastasia</author><author>Gritzalis, Dimitris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Delegate the smartphone user? Security awareness in smartphone platforms</title><secondary-title>Computers &amp; Security</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computers &amp; Security</full-title></periodical><pages>47-66</pages><volume>34</volume><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0167-4048</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mylonas et al., 2013) To investigate smartphone users' security knowledge when downloading apps from official app stores (e.g., Google Play, Apple's App Store, etc.). Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 458 smartphone users

Sex,

Age,

IT expertise There is a security complacency, as most users trust the app repository, security controls are not enabled or not added, and users disregard security during app selection and installation.

As a response to this security complacency They built a prediction model to identify users who trust the app repository. The model is assessed, evaluated, and proved to be statistically significant and efficient. Recommendation

comparing smartphone security knowledge in our sample's selected user subgroups

Investigate and contrast the security knowledge of users from various populations.

Limitations

The demographics of the sample may have an impact on the results. It is possible that there are considerable variances in smartphone security awareness among different demographics (e.g., different countries and/or continents).

Most of the participants were men, their findings may be skewed toward the male population.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bagga</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>291</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bagga et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>291</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">291</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bagga, Teena</author><author>Sodhi, J</author><author>Shukla, B</author><author>Qazi, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone Security Behaviour of the Indian Smartphone User</title><secondary-title>Man In India</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Man In India</full-title></periodical><pages>333-344</pages><volume>97</volume><number>24</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Bagga et al., 2017) The main goal of this study was to examine smartphone users' usage patterns to see if there is a general level of security complacency among them. The investigation was carried out in India.

In addition to gain insights into smartphone users' security behaviour from theanalysandoutcomes. Quantitative:

structured survey.

Sample size: 150 users

Gender,

Age,

Occupation,

Annual income

Computer Experience Smartphone users are aware of various security threats and risksas well as accessible security apps.

They also showed a satisfactory level oftrust in official app repositories.

Furthermore, there was discovered to be a relationship between a user's level of information security knowledge and their behaviour.

The most interesting finding from this study is that, despite being knowledgeable and aware of significant security issues, most people have a casual attitude about their devices and hardly secure them. Examining the impact of knowledge on smartphone user behaviour, as well as assisting in the refinement of smartphone protection measures to better meet theusers' needs.

(Ben-Asher, Kirschnick et al. 2011)

To determine mobile phone users' overall security needs, their willingness to accept various authentication methods, and the perceived sensitivity of content stored on the device and the capabilities it delivers. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 465 participants Age

Gender

full time/ part time

University/collage/school

Retired/unemployed

Housewife/House husband

Military service/

Civil service For mobile phones, a two-level security model is proposed. The concept protects differential data and services by employing a mobile phone's existing capabilities for user authentication. No recommendation, no limitation

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pramod</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>275</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pramod &amp; Raman, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>275</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">275</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pramod, Dhanya</author><author>Raman, Ramakrishnan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A study on the user perception and awareness of smartphone security</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, ISSN</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, ISSN</full-title></periodical><pages>0973-4562</pages><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pramod & Raman, 2014) To find out why young people between the ages of 20 and 30 use smartphones, researchers investigated what motivates them to do so.

The risks involved with its use in terms of security,

To see if there is a significant difference in security perceptions between (IT) graduates and non-IT graduates.

To see if there is a difference in attitudes between men and women when it comes to managing security settings on smart phones. Quantitative: Survey

Sample size: 182 participants

Gender

Age

IT and non-IT graduates Higher education students are not ignorant of security issues, but they are unaware of all security threats and practises.

In most cases, there is no discernible difference between groups.

However, significant differences were discovered in some areas, with males outnumbering females and IT graduates outnumbering non-IT graduates being more aware of security threats and conscious while using technology.

Recommendation

Future research tofocus on behavioural patterns and their relationship to security perceptions.

Extend the research to discover actual behavioural patterns and their relationship to security perceptions.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alsaleh</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alsaleh, Mansour</author><author>Alomar, Noura</author><author>Alarifi, Abdulrahman</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smartphone users: Understanding how security mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods</title><secondary-title>PloS one</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PloS one</full-title></periodical><pages>e0173284</pages><volume>12</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><isbn>1932-6203</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Alsaleh et al., 2017)

The goal of this study is to investigatehow smartphone users' attitudes, beliefs, and understanding of numerous security issues affect their security and privacy decisions.

To gather quantitative data on smartphone users' perspectives toward several essential security features, including locking mechanisms, app repositories, mobile instant messaging, and smartphone location. Qualitative: interviews

Sample size: 30 structured qualitative interviews Age

Gender

Income level

Occupation

Residential type Determine the aspects that may have an impact on smartphone users' security behaviours. theynext proposedsome platform design modifications that theybelieve could improve the security levels of smartphones, based on our understanding of what might cause and influence major behavioural changes.

1. Investigating User Behaviour to a Variety of Security Features.

2. Developing a Security Model

Platform Limitation

Even though this study only looked at the perceptions and behaviours of 30 Android users in terms of security and privacy, theybelieve the findings provide a better understanding of the factors that lead smartphone users to accept the risks of privacy and security threats or take protective measures. Future scholars are also encouraged to replicate findings.

Study on a larger sample that includes users of other smartphone operating systems.

Furthermore, because 86 percent of our participants are from a single nation, this could bea useful tool for determining whether there are any cultural factors that influence users' decisions to protect themselves, as evidenced by the findings reported in this work.

ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Peng</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>267</RecNum><DisplayText>(Peng et al., 2016)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>267</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wpevw959z5td28etze3p2pfdwfsp2p00adv0" timestamp="1661166471">267</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Peng, Wei</author><author>Kanthawala, Shaheen</author><author>Yuan, Shupei</author><author>Hussain, Syed Ali</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A qualitative study of user perceptions of mobile health apps</title><secondary-title>BMC public health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>BMC public health</full-title></periodical><pages>1-11</pages><volume>16</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>1471-2458</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Peng et al., 2016),

To investigate and quantify the design and content features of health apps that help or hinder usage from the users' perspective. Mixed methods: 6 focus groups and 5 individual interviews

The data was analysed using inductive thematic analysis, which yielded nine themes:

1) Obstacles to health app adoption,

2) Barriers to continuous use of health apps

3) motivators,

4) information and individualised assistance,

5) awareness and progress tracking,

6) credibility,

7) goal-setting,

8) reminders, and

9) personal information sharing Recommendation

Researchers, app designers, and health care providers can learn how to develop and evaluate health apps from the users' perspective thanks to the findings.

Limitation

The studys participants are skewed toward the younger population, which is one of its limitations.

Another limitation in existing qualitative research on health apps is the lack of a systematic framework to guide qualitative investigation.

Appendix (2): Survey questions

5896610-41148000Pupil Survey on Mobile Phone Usage

Your name

Date of birth

Gender MF

Name of University..

Approximately, how long since you got your first Internet-enabled phone?

1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years

6 Years 7 Years 8 Years More than 8 Years.

Approximately, how many contacts do you have on your phone?

What type of phone do you have?

AndroidiPhoneWindows

Other (please specify: ....).

What do you most use your phone for?

Entertainment Contacting friends Visiting Web sites Other.

Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?

Photos of yourselfPhotos of friendsPhotos of family

Text messagesEmail.

Do you use your phone for school-related activities?

Y N.

How often do you change your mobile phone?

Every yearLess than a yearMore than a year.

What do you do with your old phone?

Sell it Keep it Give it away Throw it away Other.

Have you ever lost a phone, or had it stolen?

Y N

What is your favorite place to use the Internet?

Your own roomAt home (not in your own room)School

LibraryCafOther (e.g...)

Have you ever cleared your browsing history?

YNDo not know

Have you ever received any pictures from people in your contacts?

Y N

Do you take steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages or calls?

NoY (ex: )

Have you received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally?

YN

Have you ever received any content from other people that you found upsetting, offensive, or bullying?

Y N

Do your parents ever check how you use your phone?

YNNot Sure

How much do you think your parents know about what do you do on your phone?

EverythingA lotA littleNothing

Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge?

YN

Do you ever install apps on your phone?

Y N Not Sure.

Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app?

Y N Not Sure.

Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation?

Y N Not Sure.

Have you ever received any advice about online security?

YNNot Sure.

Are any of the following apps installed on your smartphone?

Snapchat WhatsAppViberooVoo

Skype MessengerImo 6rounds

Skout OmegleAzarChatroulette

Have you ever avoided an app rather than share personal information?

YN

Have you ever turned off the location tracking (GPS) on your phone for safety?

YNNot Sure.

Have you ever had concerns about any of the following in connection with phone use? (Please select all that apply)

Your personal information Your privacy Revealing your location

Appendix (3): Informed consent sheet for survey

Dear Participant

Thank you for taking part in my survey on Mobile phone usage and associated risks.

First, I would like to let you know that the survey takes approximately 5-10 minutes to complete. And it will contain questions about your experience and usage of mobile phones and your awareness of security risks. Your name and other contact details will never be used in this research so that you cannot be recognised from the survey data. The collected data from the survey will be used for research purposes only.

Though there are not direct benefit to those participating in the study, this survey is an opportunity for you to share insights on using your Internet-enabled phone. The aim of this study is to learn more about the behaviour of users when they are using their smartphones.

Please note that your participation in the survey is voluntary and you can withdraw from it at any time. The results will be stored and kept strictly confidential and will be stored on the Strathclyde (H) drive to be analysed.

By clicking the '>>' button below you accept the conditions of the survey and agree to participate.

This study is approved by the Departmental Ethics Committee.

For any questions regarding the survey, please contact one of the followings:

Najla Etaher, Ph.D. student, najla.etaher@strath.ac.uk

My supervisor: Dr. George Weir, george.weir@strath.ac.uk.

Appendix (4): Qualitative Study Interview

Smartphone usage and attitudes towards mobile phone usage.

This interview schedule is designed to examine the smartphones usage and attitudes towards mobile phone usage. The questions in this interview schedule pertain to the following topics background information of the interviewee, ownership of phones, general usage of smartphones, SM and Internet usage of smartphones, perceptions of mobile phones, including questions on personal autonomy, friendships, and parental control.

The questions are given below:

Background Information:

1. Age, Gender and Education level.

Acquisition (ownership) of an Internet-enabled phone

2. Do you have a smartphone? Why did you buy it?

3. What is the operating system of your mobile phone? Do you consider brand name to be an important factor when buying a mobile phone? Why?

4. What are the factors you considered when you bought your phone?

5. How long have you had/did you have your first phone? Since then, how many times have you changed your phone? What are the reasons that make you change your phone?

6. What did you do with your old phone? Why?

7. Does your mobile phone usage increase as you grow older? Could you please tell me how your usage has changed?

8. Have you ever lost a phone? How did you feel about it? What was the first action that you took about this loss?

General usage, Mass media & Internet usage of mobile phones

9. What do you store on your device? In your opinion, which data should be stored on a mobile phone? Why?

10. Do you have access to the Internet on your phone? What is your purpose in accessing the Internet via your phone?

11. Have you ever misplaced your smartphone?

12. Do you consider health issues in connection with phone use? Do you take any precautions?

Security & privacy

13. Do you consider smart phone security important? Why?

14. Do you use any smartphone protection mechanisms? If so, what mechanisms do you use?

15. Are you aware of the existence of smartphone malicious software (virus, worm, Trojan horse, etc.)? Have you had any experience with any types of malware? Can you tell me more about it, how did you deal with it?

16. Are you aware of the existence of security software that is available for smartphones (e.g. antivirus, firewall, etc.)? Do you use any such software on your smartphone?

17. How useful do you think it is to use security software on your phone?

18. Have you received any advice on information security? Could you please tell me how useful you found it?

19. What contents on your phone do you share with others? Why?

20. Have you ever shared your personal information with others? What do you think about sharing personal information via the Internet?

21. Are you concerned about the privacy of your personal data in connection with mobile phone use? If so, what are these concerns?

Installing apps on phones

22. Do you install apps on your phone? How many apps are installed on your mobile phone?

23. What social media apps are mostly used on your phone?

24. Have you ever installed pirated apps instead of buying the original app version? Can you tell me what your reasons were?

25. What are your main criteria in choosing apps to install on your smart phone?

26. Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? Have you ever had any issues with apps that you have installed? How did you deal with this issue?

27. Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation?

28. Are you aware that some phone apps may capture information on your location? Is this something that concerns you? If so, why?

29. Do you pay attention to security messages that appear during the app installation process on your smartphone? (Always, Sometimes, Never).

30. Do you pay attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process on your smartphone? (Always, Sometimes, Never).

31. Do you think mobile phones tell others who you are? And where are you? How?

32. Do you turn GPS off on your phone? Why? Why not?

Friendships

33. Do you usually know the friends personally you share contents with on your mobile phones?

34. Do you ever share contents from your mobile phone with people you have not met personally? Why? Do you think it is okay to share contents with strangers?

Parental control

35. Do your parents have rules about your mobile phone usage? Can you give examples?

36. Do you ever have disagreements with your parents about mobile phone use? Can you describe some situations?

37. Do you think it is okay for parents to monitor your mobile phone usage?

Perceptions of using mobile phones for educational activities

38. Do you use your mobile phones as an educational item?

39. What kind of educational information do you access on your mobile phone?

40. What educational apps are primarily used on your phone? How useful is it for your study?

Appendix (5): Participant Information Sheet for Interview

Participant Information Sheet for Interview

Research Title: Use of smart phones and attitudes towards mobile phone usage Investigators:

Mrs Najla Etaher (Computer and Information Sciences, PhD student, - najla.etaher@strath.ac.uk).

Dr George Weir (Computer and Information Sciences, Lead Supervisor, george.weir@strath.ac.uk, +44 (0)141 548 3915.

Mr John Wilson (Computer and Information Sciences, Second Supervisor, john.n.wilson@strath.ac.uk, +44 (0)141 548 3584.

Dear Participant

You are invited to participate in research being conducted by Najla Etaher who a PhD student at the University of Strathclyde is. My research is on mobile phone usage and associated risks, mobile security, and malware. This information sheet describes the research to be undertaken. Please read this sheet carefully and be confident that you understand its contents before deciding whether to participate or not. If you have any questions about the research, please ask the researcher.

Thank you for participating in this Interview. First, I would like to let you know that the interview will take about 30 minutes. I will give you a draft of the questions to read before we start. The interview will contain questions about background information of the interviewee, ownership of phones, general usage of phones, social media and Internet usage of phones, perceptions of mobile phones, including questions on personal autonomy, friendships and parental control, your experience and usage of mobile phones and your awareness of security risks. You will be identified by ID number (e.g. P1). Your name and other contact details will never be used in this research so that you cannot be recognised from the interview data. The collected data from the interview will be used for research purposes only and will be stored and kept strictly confidential. An anonymised version of the data will be made available for research purposes only.

Though there are no direct benefits to those participating in the study, this interview is an opportunity for you to share insights on using your Internet-enabled phone. The aim of this study is to learn more about the behaviour of users when they are using their smartphones.

Your participating is highly appreciated. There will be a competition of a 10 Amazon voucher for your participation. Your participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any time without giving a reason. I am happy to make the results available to anyone who takes part and wishes to see them.

The place of useful learning

The University of Strathclyde is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, number SC015263

I will give you a consent form to read and sign.

To protect participants, the following steps will be taken with regards to anonymity and confidentiality of information:

The audio recording will be kept on my PC for transcription, and then will be deleted after the research has been completed. An interview transcript will be stored on the Strathclyde H drive and external hard drive to be analysed.

Digital copies of interview data will be included in the University Knowledge Base. These copies will not contain any information which could possibly identify any participant.

The consent form will be kept in my supervisors office at the University of Strathclyde for five years. When this period is over, this form will be shredded.

Please read the consent form carefully and be confident that you understand its contents before signing it. If you have any questions about the research, please feel free to contact the researcher or any of her supervisors.

Researcher Primary supervisor Second Supervisor

Najla Etaher

Computer and Information Sciences, PhD student najla.etaher@strath.ac.uk Dr George Weir

Computer and Information Sciences george.weir@strath.ac.uk, +44 (0)141 548 3915). Dr John Wilson

Computer and Information Sciences john.n.wilson@strath.ac.uk, +44 (0)141 548 3584).

This study is approved by the Departmental Ethics Committee and if there are any concerns you should contact

the Departmental Ethics Committee using enquiries@cis.strath.ac.uk

The place of useful learning

The University of Strathclyde is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, number SC015263

Appendix (6): Consent Form for Interview

Researcher:

Mrs Najla Etaher, najla.etaher@strath.ac.uk.

Department of Computer and Information Sciences.

Supervisors:

Dr George Weir, george.weir@strath.ac.uk, Department of Computer and Information Sciences.

Mr John Wilson, john.n.wilson@strath.ac.uk

Department of Computer and Information Sciences.

Title of the study: Use of smart phones and attitudes towards mobile phone usage.

By signing below, I confirm that I have read and understand the following points:

I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet for the above study and have had the opportunity to ask any questions.

I understand that my permission is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without giving any reason, without my legal rights being affected.

I consent to being a participant in the above study.

I consent for anonymised data gathered from this interview which does not contain my identity information to be made available for research purposes.

Name of Participant Date:

Signature of Participant

Name of Researcher Date:

Signature of Researcher

The place of useful learning

The University of Strathclyde is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, number SC015263

Appendix (7): Example of interview coding process

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 2: Example of interview coding process, Participant No. 6Questions Response Codes Theme

Age,

Gender and Education level. I am 31.

Gender: Male. Demographic

2. Do you have a smartphone? Why did you buy it?

P6: Yes I have a Samsung galaxy J1 this one

P6: Just, actually, the most important thing for me was Internet access, recently, because you know I was quite slow in terms of picking up a new model of a smartphone so I tried to avoid it as much as I could like getting a smartphone so I just wanted like to call people, text people but then you know like I used to do a job that involved guiding and I need to reply to emails on the go sometimes so that required me to have a smartphone and that was the main reason, so for job purposes mostly but also to stay up to date you know so Let us say I am outside you know like my flat but I need to check something quick or send an email that was the main motivation for it. Reason for baying smartphone Acquisition (ownership) of an Internet-enabled phone

3. What is the operating system of your mobile phone?

Do you consider brand name to be an important factor when buying a mobile phone? Why?

P6: It is Android heatcat.

P6: I think I do not believe in this code of Apple you know sometimes it is just you know people will think that something it is good just because it has like a certain logo on it. But to an extent, like If I have a friend for instance using you know like Huyway or something and theyre happy with that brand then yes probably I would think just because like a good friend is using that and I know this is the brand, then yes but not just because this is particular brand, I wouldnt say that. operating system 4. What are the factors you considered when you bought your phone?

P6: Price, that was like the most important factor, so I did not want to spend too much on it. And this one was one of the cheapest phones. Also, like battery life was quite important for me so this one had decent battery life. I think like it lasts for 2 days which is quite you know that is really good - very for a phone and price, it wasnt expensive, these 2 factors mainly. factors you considered when you bought your phone 5. How long have you had/did you have your first phone? Since then, how many times have you changed your phone? What are the reasons that make you change your phone? P6: I had this NOKIA 3310 that is like a very long time ago. And this phone lasted me I think like a good 3 years, 2-3 years I think, it was very robust but back in the day all we used it for was make calls and texts.

Woman: Since then how many times have you changed your phone?

P6: Let me think, so for me it was just you know linked to my father in a way because each time he was changing his phone he was giving me his old phone so probably like every 2 years, but then like when I moved out from home I would say not that often, you know like till like battery wasnt keeping up at all, yea I think yea maybe every 4 years.

Woman: So what the reasons that make you change your mobile?

P6: Battery life, mostly, and this with this very last phone it was the fact you know like that the previous phone did not support Internet connection. Period of having a phone 6. What did you do with your old phone? Why? P6: I still have it, as a backup phone, you know, so like, if anything happens to this one, you know if it falls If I drop it or if it stops for whatever reason I can fall back on the other one. Old phone 7. Does your mobile phone usage increase as you grow older? Could you please tell me how your usage has changed? P6: In a way I would say so, just because you know like with email checking you know and like once you start to do a phd then maybe you know like you follow people more on twitter you check are some like papers out or notifications been sent if you submit a paper so yea, I would say so, and just because it you know supports Internet connection so probably time that I would have spent at my computer otherwise I would just spend on my phone instead.

P6: So, in a way it is migrating from desktop to smartphone, to an extent. You know, obviously I wont write an essay on this, I wont write a paper but for other stuff like checking information this is sufficient enough. phone usage 8. Have you ever lost a phone? How did you feel about it? What was the first action that you took about this loss? P6: I have not, no I was lucky enough not to.

Lost phone 9. what do you store on you device?

P6: It is mostly you know like texts and emails, not much more. Well I take pictures from time to time, but that is it. This phone does not have very good storage so if I take too many pictures, the disk if full already so I tend not to store much stuff. Another thing is Let us say I am going on a trip to Edinburgh I will have my ticket there so like to show to the driver this is my ticket so I do not have to print it. So yea, I would say like tickets, pictures and texts. Content stored on smartphones

Data should be stored on smartphone

Data shouldnt be stored on smartphone

General usage, Mass media & Internet usage of mobile phones

Woman: Ok, in your opinion which data should be stored on a mobile phone and which shouldnt?

P6: yea, actually this is good point, it reminds me of a friend of mine who went for a conference and he lost his phone and then he was actually going crazy because he had so many personal pictures on that you know and he was very upset about if it ends up you know in wrong hands you know like those pictures they can be used for so many different things but he said like the only thing he can do is just like forget about it do not worry about it but based on that experience I would say probably try to avoid like doing too much selfies and stuff like that obviously your secure information so any passwords and stuff like that or any sensitive work that you are doing maybe you are working on a paper probably not that many people would be interested in stealing your intellectual properties but still this is something you know that is of value so probably nothing of value. 10. Do you have access to the Internet on your phone? P6: Yes.

Internet access Woman: What is your purpose in accessing the Internet via your phone?

P6: So like we said previously it is mostly keeping up to my emails you know like checking maybe some notifications on social media or communicating with friends because a lot of my friends they wont even text anymore so say ok I will send you a message on Whatsup / whatever you know. So yea, keeping in touch with people so checking my emails and checking you know what other academics been up to purpose in accessing the Internet 11. Have you ever misplaced your mobile phone?

P6: I do not think I have like eh.. I have not used like any banking on the do you know like or anything like that. ehh I am trying to keep you know like just to my core activities so. I do not think I have but mm yeah misplacing smartphone 12. Do you consider health issues in connection with phone use?

Woman: So you did not take any precautions or you have taken?

P6: You mean like the exposure like to radiation you know like yeah well.. I used to but like I used to be like quite concerned about my health in general and I feel like I grow older I realize you know some things are inevitable so. Probably I am not that much concerned about mobile anymore yeah.

P6: Well probably when I realized that I have like my phone in the pocket like close to my body for too long I try like to remove it put it in the bag. You know like stuff like that. Also I try not to use it like late at night. Just to limit this exposure to screen. You sometimes you know like just because of that you will stay up for a long time. And I do not want that I used to have problem with that. But it was mostly due to desktop exposure so during my first masters I would you know like stay up til maybe 2 oclock at night just writing a paper or just doing course work and then I wanted to go to sleep and I couldnt go to sleep because of the exposure you know like to screen and radiation so. Something to be avoided yeah, but right now yeah I just probably refrain from using it late at night go to bed earlier, try not to have it like very close to my body all the time yeah health issues

precautions 13. Do you consider smartphone security important? Why? P6: Yea I think it is very important because it is easy like to compromise your data especially that you know there are apps right now that are supposed to make your life easier for instance you know like not even contactless cards but even like you can pay with your smartphone so this is equivalent of money, probably so, as much as you wouldnt like put your money like in the middle of the table when theres like strangers around you shouldnt do the same with your phone should you? Important Security & privacy

protection mechanisms

Security & privacy

14. Do you use any smartphone protection mechanisms? If so, what mechanisms do you use? P6: Ugh, I just have this thing like the generate thing where you to draw a pattern you know like to unlock the screen but other than that well I try, well, I do not have like auto-complete passwords and stuff like that because I realise like anyone can you know just as soon as they logged in that they can just access anything. So I do not store my passwords, memory or anything like that. 15. Are you aware of the existence of smartphone malicious software (virus, worm, Trojan horse, etc.)?

Have you had any experience with any types of malware?

Can you tell me more about it, how did you deal with it? P6: Yes

P6: Not on the mobile. Sometimes you know like on my desktop I was trying to install you know like a fairly regular software I think it was like adobe acrobat and for whatever reason I clicked like the wrong link on the results page and like it installed add-on so it was very annoying each time it was taking me to another like search engine it was just like so much pain like to remove that from memory so I spent like a whole day re-installing my windows but yea nothing like that happen on the mobile because I try like to limit my usages ok like go to inbox, check emails that is it. existence of smartphone malicious software

experience with any types of malware 16. Are you aware of the existence of security software that is available for smartphones (e.g. antivirus, firewall, etc.)? Do you use any such software on your smartphone? P6: I think you know like I have asked they have like this antivirus thing that you can actually extend it you know like to be used on your mobile but I have not used it on my mobile.

aware of the existence of security software for smartphones

use any such software on your smartphone 17. How useful do you think it is to use security software on your phone? P6: That is a tricky question. I think that will depend on the range of your activities, what you really do on your phone. So probably if you would use it like to install you know like external software and if you use your phone extensively for banking then, yes, probably it would be quite useful. But at the same time you know like you hear articles and news stories like about Kaspersky labs that you know they were spying on users. That makes me a bit cautious. So, I think it is a bit tricky one, because obviously it has benefits but it has cons, you know? The usefulness of security software 18. Have you received any advice on information security?

Could you please tell me how useful you found it? P6: I think like when I was doing some RDP courses in general they did told us, ok just use cloud services do not try to store everything on your physical drive, and I think it is sensible.

P6: Yea, I found it quite useful just to be aware that you know like university itself has this like storage system, Strathcloud, and it is good to learn you know like from mistakes, especially these mistakes are not affecting you personally, so if you say ok, someone failed to do that and because of that you know like they had a problem, so you try to avoid it. So for instance like, there was fire I think just down the road in James Weir building I think and it affected like equipment that was there. Some people just lost 3 years work of their PHD,

P6: They did not have backup or anything. receiving advice on information security 19. What contents on your phone do you share with others? Why?

P6: Not much sometimes you know like when I go for like a trip you know hiking I will take a picture okay look at this mountain and I will just email to my friend and they check this out you know like nice picture. Yeah. This much you know.

Woman: Why?

P6: Yeah, I am kind of you know like maybe a bit cautious like just to share more and I do not feel that much need you know like of sharing on the go. Eh I used to have you know like some friends well go for a meal. And before they start to eat you know like every angle they take a picture of whats on the plate. And then you know like they put on the-

Woman: Sharing?

P6: Instagram and stuff like that and I, me personally maybe I am like from different generation but I found it like very annoying. It is like alright just eat your food you know like. It is for eating. But yeah. Contents shared on smartphone 20. Have you ever shared your personal information with others? What do you think about sharing personal information via the Internet? P6: Eh I do not think that much no. I wouldnt say so. No not via phone.

P6: I think this is very sensitive thing and people need to be very cautious like who theyre sharing with like theres so many scams going for instance people are quite vulnerable when they go like to foreign country looking for a flat.

P6: So there is this certain country you know okay so look for a flat on gumtree and I had you know like some friends who fallen you know like for this for those people that trying you know like to trick them into like booking a flat but the flat wasnt there so you just okay you disclose your data, you make payment and then you come to this country and the flat is not there you know. So yeah. You must watch out. Because obviously you know people will want to get rich easy. sharing personal information with others

What do you think about sharing personal 21. Are you concerned about the privacy of your personal data in connection with mobile phone use? If so, what are these concerns? P6: Of course yeah and I think like that especially in this day and age like everything that you know like you look for online kind of describes you what kind of person you like what you are interested in and then based on that like marketing can be targeted at you. Ok, you visited this website so probably you would like to buy you know this pair of shoes. And then you know maybe you are reading news and then in the corner there is a picture of the shoes appearing hey maybe like you want to get those shoes. It is not only that you know, there is this saying you know that if the product is free that just means that you are a product and I think that that applies you know like for making searches, ok, search engine is out there for you but obviously they want to make money and then they can collect your profile, that is fine because then they can give this data to advertising parties or to companies so then they can target you this way so it is yea, dangerous. concerns about the privacy of personal data 22.Do you install apps on your phone?

How many apps are installed on your mobile phone? P6: I try not to, like, whenever I do not have to I try not to for this reason that I gave you, that sometimes maybe I click on the wrong link and then I will end up with this malicious software or this soft software that will be just annoying you like add-in that is very difficult to remove. And just because I know how annoying it is to remove it you know I will try not to get into that on my mobile.

P6: Maybe like 4. install apps

Number of apps

Installing apps on phones

23.What social media apps are mostly used on your phone? P6: Recently I would say mostly Facebook, because of you know like people sending messages through that you know? Or WhatsApp, so these 2 are the top ones. social media apps 24.Have you ever installed pirated apps instead of buying the original app version? Can you tell me what your reasons were? P6: I have not no.

pirated apps 25. What are your main criteria in choosing apps to install on your smart phone? P6: ok, I think like the top one, number 1 criteria would be: Do I really need it? What can I use it for? So, also I guess you know like I am not that concerned about like reviews because obviously other people will try you know like their best you know to make you get stuff. So sometimes even like people who work for this company they will be making like recommendations yea, top product! you know? Yea, so first of all, do I really need it? And then if I need it, is there like a free version of that, available somewhere, that is available through trusted party but yea number one issue, do I need it? You know? And what do I need it for? main criteria in choosing apps 26. Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? Have you ever had any issues with apps that you have installed? How did you deal with this issue? P6: Yea, of course

P6: Yes, but on desktop

P6: Well, I had to re-install the system just to get rid of that and do like some googling first to figure out how you know registry? Sometimes you know like you can uninstall something but there is still like a small b latin registry and it like duplicates itself. Yea, I hate it. So just because I know how long it takes to get rid of that I will just like, yea, try to avoid it. Risk awareness when install apps 27. Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation? P6: Yea, yea Awareness of permissions 28.Are you aware that some phone apps may capture information on your location?

Is this something that concerns you? If so, why? P6: Yes

Woman: Is this something that concerns you?

P6: Yea, it does. Because the fact that you know like someone is always tracking your whereabouts and in this kind of like sneaky way because most of the times you have got terms and conditions maybe you have to scroll through like 20 pages of text and then towards like on the page 15 there is a paragraph which says by the way you know like, by this youre agreeing you know like for this device to keep track of your data.

P6: The problem is exposure I think

P6: Because as you are using this more and more youre getting used to it and other people say ok, you know, it is fine so, you see more and more people agreeing to that you think it is normal you know like it becomes like a new standard and this is kind of you know scary because then you know like the boundary is being pushed like further and further. Capturing information on your location 29.Do you pay attention to security messages that appear during the app installation process on your smartphone? (Always, Sometimes, Never). P6: I try to. But that will also depend on the situation. If I am in a rush and I say ok, I need to install like a new update for an app that I already have like WhatsApp needs to be updated because otherwise you know like I cannot message or I cannot check you know so then probably this is urgency so I would just maybe quickly scan through it and I will know.. see? this is retaining the language that sometimes if you like do not understand like the specific legal terminology you can read it and still you know they will find a way to phrase it in the way that you know it is quite difficult to understand what it really means. paying attention to security messages 30.Do you pay attention to licensing agreements that appear during the app installation process on your smartphone? (Always, Sometimes, Never). P6: Likewise that will be the same case scenario. You know? If it is you know like I know there are 20 pages I used to read like all of them in detail and you know like I think creating a google account is a prime example because if you say no, that is it, you know? They say ok, fine, you say no - you cannot use it you know? and what are you going to do about it?

P6: so yea, this is a tricky thing paying attention to licensing agreements 31. Do you think mobile phones tell others who you are? And where are you? How? P6: Yea, of course. Like we said, the more kind of searches you conduct you know like the better profile they can collect of yourself. Let us say, ok I am looking for a flight to New Jersey for instance, I am checking up article I am looking up conference date. Ok this guy is an academic, maybe he is going for a conference and I only did like 3 searches you know, and they know, so yea.

P6: Yea like so I think from my understanding is you know like creating like an online profile is a question of you know like lock history so all searches that you conducted and then you have got the cookies, ok? So in order to personalise result they say ok, by the way, we can offer you more better target results but you know like we just need you to provide this this and that or well be recording this. mobile phones tell others who you are? And where are you? 32. Do you turn GPS off on your phone? Why? Why not? P6: Actually I turn it off, it is me, sorry. Yea, actually I turn it off normally, so I do not use maps that much you know like, what I do before going somewhere is just like trying to get a good idea where I am going maybe print something in paper so I do not have to use like GPS

Woman: ok, so, all the time you turn off your GPS?

P6: Yea yeaWoman: Why, is it for .. ?

P6: Yea, just like we say, to not disclose even more data you know that they already have, I think they have enough. Turning GPS off 33. Do you usually know the friends personally you share contents with on your mobile phones? P6:yes, I wouldnt send you know like anything personal if I do not know someone you know. So it is, is this a question of like sharing, I do not know, pictures. Even like on Facebook I tend just to have a profile so people can message me but I tend not to upload anything in there. sharing contents with friends that you know personally Friendships

34. Do you ever share contents from your mobile phone with people you have not met personally? Why?

Do you think it is okay to share contents with strangers? P6: No no,

P6: That boils down to the thinking like you cannot tell who the stranger is.

P6: Who is this person like why they want your data you know what are they going to do about it yeah. I think it is a common sense as you wouldnt you know like give away like money to stranger you wouldnt give your information which is actually equivalent of money you know like.

P6: It is not sensible. I think that is it yeah it wouldnt be sensible to do that. sharing contents with people you have not met personally 35. Do your parents have rules about your mobile phone usage in the past? Can you give examples? P6: In the past.. Hmm. See like the main reason I got a phone I think was because my mom just wanted to check where I am so she would have like more control over it.

P6: But that phone like what it could do it couldnt you know text so you could call so ye- no that phone like it couldnt access Internet even. So like the main thing was like okay. If youre late make sure you call me make sure you text me. This kind of control. I know but then nothing other parents rules about your mobile phone usage in the past Parental control

36. Do you ever have disagreements with your parents about mobile phone use? Can you describe some situations? P6: I guess as a teenager you know like when you have, when you want to have your independence and maybe youre with your friends and your mom is like calling you all the time to check and know where you are.. So then yeah probably yeah I told my mom a few times that I think like shes overly protective. disagreements with parents about mobile phone 37. Do you think it is okay for parents to monitor your mobile phone usage? P6: I guess you know like in the context in which you know like you have a child and they are accessing some like paid services that are like quite expensive or theyre downloading stupid games or apps they have to pay for yeah it is like.. Throwing money away so obviously ye. That though makes sense to have like a proper education to say: Hey, I am providing you with this but you need to know how to use it well towards your benefit, yea. Is it okay for parents to monitor your mobile phone usage 38. Do you use your mobile phones as an educational item? P6: I used to. I used to learn Japanese on my phone so there was this dual-lingo, have you heard about this app? So the idea is you know like you have got translations into 2 languages or you have got different cards with the transcriptions of them and you learn this way. I think it is a great tool one of the best apps is dual-lingo. Using smartphone as educational item Perceptions of using mobile phones for educational activities

39. What kind of educational information do you access on your mobile phone? P6: Eanguages mostly, so learning new languages. I do not know whether it counts as educational information but I just recently started to use Twitter just to follow up other academics. Say, ok, this guy just published a workshop paper yea maybe I should like email them to ask for a pre-print, you know? Stuff like that. educational information accessed on smartphone 40. What educational apps are primarily used on your phone? How useful is it for your study? P6: So, dual-lingo. This is still installed on the phone and you know like the good thing about it is you know like you can decide how much time you can devote to it so sometimes I only have 5 minutes, ok Let us do a quick lesson and it feels like a game almost. Youre earning points then you can buy stuff with points and it is free you know, so it is quite good. You can try it if you wanted one, I do not know some new language youre interested in.

Woman: Yea, it is really nice

P6: It is expanding, you know like so, I think theyre starting to cover even some Arabic language so you may check you know how good it is. educational apps are primarily used on your phone Appendix (8): Normality Test

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

Age .274 346 .000 .775 346 .000

Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

Gender .446 346 .000 .572 346 .000

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

What type of the phone do you have? .289 346 .000 .737 346 .000

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

Approximately, how long since you got your first Internet enabled phone? .104 346 .000 .935 346 .000

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

What do you most use your phone for? .302 346 .000 .796 346 .000

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?-Photos of yourself .440 346 .000 .580 346 .000

Photos of family .446 346 .000 .572 346 .000

Text messages .535 346 .000 .309 346 .000

Email .447 346 .000 .570 346 .000

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic dfSig. Statistic dfSig.

What do you most use your phone for? .302 346 .000 .796 346 .000

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Appendix (9): Results (2): Non-parametric tests

As the data in this study was not normally distributed, it was decided that the non-parametric tests will be used in the current study. This section provides the detailed results of Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests of the collected data through the research survey based on some categories (devices, behaviour, experience, and awareness) by demographics.

Mann-Whitney test reporting by gender and level of education

The Mann-Whitney U test was used to check for gender, and level of education differences in smartphone usage by comparing the usage of males with that of females, school students and university students. This section illustrates the reporting of Mann-Whitney test by gender, the results show that:

Smartphone ownership among participants by gender Appendix (9)

There is a statistically significant differences in the ownership of users of different types of smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 212.19, Md=2.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 157.33, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 8498.000, Z = -5.218, p =0.000).

Users knowledge by gender Appendix (10)

Users awareness of what they do with their old phones

There is no statistically significant difference in the users awareness of what they do with their old phones across the two genders (mean rank=173.91, Md=2.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank=172.52, Md=2.00) of males (n=244) and females (n=102), (U=12344.000, Z= -0.132, p=0.895).

Users awareness of clearing browsing history on their smartphones

There is no statistically significant difference in the users awareness of clearing browsing history on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank=174.04, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank=171.86, Md=1.00) of males (n=243) and females (n=101), (U=12115.500, Z= -0.253, p=0.800).

Users awareness of whether they mind that their parents check their phones without their knowledge

There is no statistically significant difference in the users awareness of whether they mind that their parents check their phones without their knowledge across the two genders (mean rank = 172.76, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 171.69, Md=1.00) of males (n =243) and females (n = 100), (U = 12074.000, Z = -0.109, p = 0.913).

Users awareness of that there may be risks when they install mobile apps on their smartphones

There is no statistically significant difference in the users awareness of that there may be risks when they install mobile apps on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 178.82, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 170.59, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11734.500, Z = -1.331, p = 0.183).

Users awareness of that that apps ask for permissions before installing apps on their smartphones

There is no statistically significant difference in the users awareness of that that apps ask for permissions before installing some mobile apps on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 173.96, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 172.60, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12225.000, Z = -0.272, p = 0.786).

Receiving any advice about online security

There is no statistically significant difference in receiving any advice about online security across the two genders (mean rank = 180.40, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 169.94, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11575.000, Z = -1.462, p = 0.144).

Avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information

There is no statistically significant difference in the users awareness of avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information across the two genders (mean rank = 174.43, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank= 171.70, Md=1.00) of males (n =243) and females (n = 101), (U = 12077.000, Z = -0.305, p = 0.760).

Having concerns about users personal information/ privacy/ revealing their locations in connection with their phone use

There is no gender difference in the users awareness of having concerns about their personal information, their privacy and revealing their current locations in connection with their phone use.

Personal information in connection with their phone use (mean rank = 173.20, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 170.82, Md=1.00) of males (n =243) and females (n = 101), (U = 12101.500, Z = -0.264, p = 0.792).

Their privacy in connection with their phone use (mean rank = 175.22, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 167.64, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11780.500, Z = -0.813, p = 0.416).

Revealing users current locations in connection with their phone use (mean rank = 176.27, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 165.10, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11524.000, Z = -1.162, p = 0.245).

Users experience of having a smartphone by gender Appendix (11)

Duration of owing a smartphone

There is no statistically significant difference in the users experience of duration of owing a smartphone across the two genders (mean rank = 179.81, Md = 5.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 158.40, Md=4.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 10903.500, Z = -1.829, p = 0.067).

Losing smartphones or have them stolen

There is no statistically significant difference in the users experience of losing or have their smartphones stolen across the two genders (mean rank = 177.97, Md = 0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 171.63, Md = 0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 11988.000, Z=-0.679, p = 0.497).

Receiving any pictures from people in contacts on their smartphones

There is no statistically significant difference in the users experience of receiving any pictures from people in contacts on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 179.34, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 170.38, Md =1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 11682.000, Z = -1.369, p = 0.171).

Receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones

There is no statistically significant difference in the users experience of receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts users do not know personally on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 176.85, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 163.69, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11382.000, Z = -1.304, p = 0.192).

Receiving any content from other people that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying

There is no statistically significant difference in the users experience of receiving any content from other people that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 175.14, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 167.84, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11801.000, Z = -0.954, p = 0.340).

Users behavior in using smartphones by gender Appendix (12)

Number of contacts on users phones

There is no statistically significant difference in the number of contacts in smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 177.62, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 170.37, Md=1.00) of males (n =243) and females (n = 101), (U= 11754.000, Z = 0.718, p = 0.473).

What users mostly use their phones for

There is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in terms of the most purpose of using of their phones across the two genders (mean rank = 185.40, Md=2.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 168.52, Md=2.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 11230.000, Z = -1.566, p = 0.117).

What users store on their smartphones

Also, there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in storing text messages across the two genders (mean rank = 173.82, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 172.74, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U= 12366.000, Z = -0.192, p = 0.848). There is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in storing emails across the two genders (mean rank = 177.91, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 162.94, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U= 11367.000, Z = -1.612, p = 0.107).

Using smartphones for school related activities

There is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users who are using their smartphones for educational activities across the two genders (mean rank = 180.88, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 170.41, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 102), (U = 11691.000, Z = -1.186, p = 0.236).

Duration of changing mobile phones

There is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users who are changing their phones every year, within less than a year, or more than a year across the two genders (mean rank = 173.38, Md=3.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 172.09, Md=3.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12230.000, Z = -0.157, p = 0.875).

Favourite location to use the Internet

There is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of smartphones users favourite places to use the Internet across the two genders (mean rank = 175.84, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 166.13, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11628.500, Z = -0.938, p = 0.348).

Installing apps on smartphones

There is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing mobile apps on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 175.84, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 166.13, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12190.000, Z = -0.493, p = 0.622).

WhatsApp: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing WhatsApp app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 173.53, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 171.73, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12193.500, Z = -0.177, p = 0.860).

Viber: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Viber app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 177.74, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 171.04, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 11843.000, Z = -0.917, p = 0.359).

ooVoo: there is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing ooVoo app on their smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 193.11, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 164.67, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 10290.500, Z = -3.889, p = 0.000).

Messenger: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Messenger app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 174.01, Md=1.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 172.58, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12220.000, Z = -0.163, p = 0.871).

Imo: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Imo app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 174.01, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 172.58, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12271.500, Z = -0.643, p = 0.520).

6rounds: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing 6rounds app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 173.12, Md=0.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 172.71, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12292.500, Z = -0.189, p = 0.850).

Skout: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Skout app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 173.62, Md=0.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank = 171.50, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12170.500, Z = -1.118, p = 0.264).

Omegle: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Omegle app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 173.04, Md=0.00) scored higher on females than males (mean rank = 172.98, Md=0.00) of males (n =244) and females (n = 101), (U = 12318.000, Z = -0.013, p = 0.990).

Azar: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Azar app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank = 173.21, Md=0.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank=172.50, Md=0.00) of males (n=244) and females (n=101), (U=12271.500, Z=-0.643, p=0.520).

Chatroulette: there is no statistically significant difference in the behaviour of users in installing Chatroulette app on smartphones across the two genders (mean rank=174.66, Md=1.00) scored higher on males than females (mean rank=169.00, Md=1.00) of males (n =244) and females (n=101), (U=11918.000, Z=-1.839, p=0.066).

Kruskal-Wallis test Reporting by age

The Kruskal-Wallis test was employed in this study to compare age groups as it is commonly used incomparing more than two groups. This method, which isa non-parametric test that assesses whether there are any differencesbetween three or more groups of values, requires (as does the Mann-Whitney U test) on ranking the data. The total difference between the group means is considered significant if the p-value is less than 0.05, as with the Mann-Whitney U test does. Pairwise comparisons were utilised to identify the differences among the three groups affected by the age variable. This technique analyses numerous populations means in pairs to see if they differ significantly from one another. The differences between the means of the two groups were calculated using post hoc testing. In order to decrease the likelihood of obtaining false-positive results(type I errors),the Bonferroni correction was utilized. When several pairwise tests are run on a same dataset, this technique lowers the p-values. All pairwise comparisons given in this chapter have had their p-values adjusted using the Bonferroni method.

To evaluate the results, one must first ascertain their overall significance before identifying any instances of significant differences across groups. Even having the greatest mean rank for a particular group, there may occasionally be a significant overall difference but no significant differences will be seen in the pairwise testing. In other instances, both the pairwise difference and the overall difference will be significantly different.

A Kruskal-Wallis H test provided very strong evidence of a difference (p0.05) between the mean ranks of at least one pair of groups. A further test, which is Dunns pairwise tests, were carried out for the three pairs of groups. Although Kruskal-Wallis test showed that there was a difference between the groups as overall, but the further test was conducted within the groups. The explanation of the Kruskal-Wallis test applies to comparisons between more than two groups of the age reported in this chapter and it showed that:

Smartphone devices ownership by age Appendix (13)

Smartphones ownership by age

Same test as in section 3.8.1.7 was carried out and it has been found that there was very strong evidence (p0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21 and between those who aged 12-16 and 22, 2(2)= 22.902, p0.001, with a mean rank of 199.62 for age group (12-16), 157.41 for age group (17-21) 142.21 for the third age group (22). And that there was no difference has been found between those who are 17-21 and 22 with a mean rank of 105.86 for age group (12-16), 213.32 for age group (17-21) and 261.39 for the third age group (22), with p=0.980.

Users knowledge by age Appendix (14)

Users awareness of what they do with their old phones

There was not any statistically significant evidence of differences in the different age groups in this study who had such experience, 2(2) = 3.745, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 182.65 for age group (12-16), 163.40 for age group (17-21) and 179.20 for the third age group (22). So, we retain the null hypothesis.

Users awareness of that there may be risks when they install some mobile apps into their smartphones

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the level of risk awareness among smartphone users when they are installing mobile phone apps, 2(2) = 0.833, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 174.04 for age group (12-16), 170.60 for age group (17-21) and 178.36 for the third age group (22).

Users awareness of that mobile apps asks for permissions before installation

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users awareness of that mobile apps ask for permissions before installation, 2(2) = 0.261, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 171.64 for age group (12-16), 173.99 for age group (17-21) and 174.00 for the third age group (22).

Users awareness of receiving any advice about online security

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users awareness of receiving any advice about online security, 2(2) =1.464, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 177.59 for age group (12-16), 169.46 for age group (17-21) and 170.26 for the third age group (22).

Having concerns about users personal information in connection with phone use

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users awareness of having concerns about their personal information in connection with phone use, 2(2)=4.327, p0.05, with a mean rank of 165.49 for age group (12-16), 173.58 for age group (17-21) and 193.33 for the third age group (22).

Having concerns about users privacy in connection with phone use

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users awareness of having concerns about their privacy in connection with phone use, 2(2)=4.327, p0.05, with a mean rank of 169.65 for age group (12-16), 172.36 for age group (17-21) and 187.04 for the third age group (22).

Having concerns about revealing location in connection with phone use

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users awareness of having concerns about revealing their locations in connection with phone use, 2(2)=3.596, p0.05, with a mean rank of 181.56 for age group (12-16), 164.08 for age group (17-21) and 176.61 for the third age group (22).

Users experience of smartphones by age Appendix (15)

Period of having the first Internet-enabled phone

A Kruskal-Wallis test provided very strong evidence of a difference (p<0.001) between the mean ranks of at least one pair of groups. Dunns pairwise tests were carried out for the three pairs of groups. There was very strong evidence (p<0.001, adjusted using the Bonferroni correction) of a difference between the age group 12-16 and 17-21, between those who aged 12-16 and 22 and between those who are aged 17-21 and 22, with a mean rank of 105.86 for age group (12-16), 213.32 for age group (17-21) and 261.39 for the third age group (22) and 2(2)=126.322.

Losing a phone or had it stolen

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in users having lost their phones or have them stolen, 2(2)=3.790, p0.05, with a mean rank of 178.49 for age group (12-16), 164,97 for age group (17-21) and 187.90 for the third age group (22).

Kruskal-Wallis Test Reporting the users experience of receiving any content from other people that users found up setting, offensive, or bullying on their smartphones

There was not any statistical significant evidence of differences between any of the different age groups in this study who had experienced receiving any content from other people that they found up setting, offensive, or bullying, 2(2)=0.741, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 173.64 for age group (12-16), 174.53 for age group (17-21) and 165.04 for the third age group (22).

Users behavior by age Appendix (16)

What users mostly use their phones for

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior of what they mostly use their phones for, 2(2)= 1.528, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 178.77 for age group (12-16), 166.85 for age group (17-21) and 179.93 for the third age group (22).

Storing personal photos on smartphones

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in storing their personal photos on their smartphones, 2(2) =3.875, p0.05, with a mean rank of 182.96 for age group (12-16), 168.10 for age group (17-21) and 160.60 for the third age group (22).

Storing friends photos on smartphones

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in storing their friends photos on their smartphones, 2(2) =0.537, p0.05, with a mean rank of 170.04 for age group (12-16), 174.06 for age group (17-21) and 179.43 for the third age group (22).

Period of changing mobile phones in years

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in the period of changing their mobile phones in years, 2(2) =21.907, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 168.25 for age group (12-16), 176.79 for age group (17-21) and 175.52 for the third age group (22).

Favourite locations to use the Internet on smartphones

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in their favorite locations to use the Internet on smartphones, 2(2)=1.690, p0.05, with a mean rank of 176.71 for age group (12-16), 166.71 for age group (17-21) and 183.61 for the third age group (22).

Users behaviour in installing mobile apps on their smartphones

There were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in installing mobile apps on their smartphones, 2(2) =0.927, p0.05, with a mean rank of 171.25 for age group (12-16), 173.82 for age group (17-21) and 176.00 for the third age group (22).

Imo: there were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in installing Imo app on their smartphones, 2(2) =1.197, p0.05, with a mean rank of 172.50 for age group (12-16), 173.60 for age group (17-21) and 172.50 for the third age group (22).

6rounds: there were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in installing 6rounds app on their smartphones, 2(2)=0.974, p0.05, with a mean rank of 173.36 for age group (12-16), 172.10 for age group (17-21) and 175.11 for the third age group (22).

Skout: there were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in installing Skout app on their smartphones, 2(2) =1.266, p 0.05, with a mean rank of 172.68 for age group (12-16), 172.60 for age group (17-21) and 175.61 for the third age group (22).

Azar: there was not any statistically significant difference in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in installing Azar app on their smartphones, 2(2) =1.197, p0.05, with a mean rank of 172.50 for age group (12-16), 173.60 for age group (17-21) and 172.50 for the third age group (22).

Chatroulette: there were not any statistically significant differences in the different age groups in this study in the users behavior in the users behavior in installing Chatroulette app on their smartphones, 2(2) =1.972, p0.05, with a mean rank of 173.73 for age group (12-16), 171.20 for age group (17-21) and 177.21 for the third age group (22).

Mann-Whitney test reporting by level of education

This section illustrates the reporting of Mann-Whitney test by level of education, the results show that:

Smartphone ownership among participants by academic level Appendix (17)

Smartphones ownership

There is a statistically significant difference in the ownership of users of different types of smartphones across the two academic level students (mean rank = 200.72, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=153.39, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U= 10624.500, Z = -4.882, p =0.000).

Users knowledge by level of education Appendix (18)

Users awareness of what they do with their old phones

Descriptive statistics the users awareness of what they do with their old phones do not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=187.33, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=161.57, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13281.000, Z=-1.644, p = 0.100).

Users awareness of that there may be risks when they install mobile apps

Descriptive statistics show that the users awareness of that there may be risks when they install mobile apps on their smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=173.05, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=172.93, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14517.000, Z=-0.021, p= 0.983).

Users awareness of that apps asks for permissions before installing some mobile apps on their smartphones

Descriptive statistics show that the users awareness of that that apps ask for permissions before installing some mobile apps on their smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank =173.99, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=171.64, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14329.000, Z=-0.511, p=0.609).

Receiving any advice about online security

Descriptive statistics show that receiving any advice about online security does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=177.59, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=169.63, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13857.000, Z=-1.208, p= 0.227).

Avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information

Descriptive statistics show that difference in receiving any advice about online security does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=177.86, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=168.60, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n= 145), (U=13651.000, Z=-1.124, p=0.261).

Reporting Mann-Whitney U for having concerns about users personal information/ privacy/ revealing their locations in connection with their phone use

Mann-Whitney U Test do not show any significant differences in the users awareness of having concerns about their personal information, their privacy and revealing their current locations in connection with their phone use across the academic level groups.

So, the findings exposed that there is no difference in users awareness of having concerns about their personal information in connection with their phone use across the two academic level students (mean rank=177.67, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank =165.49, Md=1.00) of university students (n=198) and school students (n=146), (U=13430.000, Z=-1.465, p=0.143).

Also, there is no difference in users awareness of having concerns about their privacy in connection with their phone use across the two academic level students (mean rank=175.46, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=169.65, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14038.000, Z=-0.676, p= 0.499).

There is no difference users awareness of having concerns about revealing users current locations in connection with their phone use across the two academic level students (mean rank=182.74, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank =169.85, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13105.000, Z=-1.907, p= 0.057).

Users experience by level of education Appendix (19)

Losing or have their smartphones stolen: the users experience of losing or have their smartphones stolen does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=178.49, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=169.81, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13893.000, Z=-1.007, p=0.314).

Receiving any content from other people that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying: the users experience of receiving any content from other people that they found upsetting, offensive, or bullying on their smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=173.64, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=172.53, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14433.000, Z=-0.159, p=0.874).

What users mostly use their phones for: the most use of the phones by their owners does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=180.65, Md=2.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=168.22, Md=2.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=13575.000, Z=-1.251, p=0.211).

On the other hand, the findings revealed that not significant differences were found either in the behaviour of students in storing their personal photos, their friends photos nor in storing text messages on their smartphones. So, descriptive statistics showed that the behaviour of users in storing their personal photos on their devices does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=182.96, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=166.52, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=13236.500, Z=-1.893, p=0.058).

Also, descriptive statistics showed that the behaviour of the students storing photos of users friends on their devices does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=175.20, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=170.04, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=14118.000, Z= -0.614, p=0.539).

Similarly, the results showed that storing text messages on uses devices does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=173.88, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=173.22, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=147), (U=14118.000, Z=-0.126, p = 0.900).

Duration of changing their mobile phones: the findings showed that the behaviour of smartphone users in the duration of changing their mobile phones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=176.53, Md=3.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=168.25, Md=3.00) of university students (n=198) and school students (n=147), (U=13575.000, Z=-1.099, p= 0.272).

Favourite location to use the Internet: the behaviour of smartphone users in the favourite location to use the Internet does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=177.77, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=169.50, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13830.000, Z=-0.868, p=0.385).

Behaviour of users in installing mobile apps on smartphones: the behaviour of smartphone users in the behaviour of users in installing apps on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=174.28, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=171.25, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14272.000, Z=-0.878, p= 0.380).

Snapchat: the behaviour of smartphone users in installing Snapchat app on their smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=174.28, Md=1.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=171.25, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14272.000, Z= -0.878, p=0.380).

Viber: the behaviour of smartphone users in installing Viber app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=177.34, Md=0.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=167.09, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14272.000, Z=-1.522, p=0.128).

Skype: the behaviour of users in installing Skype app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=178.32, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=165.75, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13468.500, Z=-1.340, p=0.180).

Messenger: the behaviour of users in installing Messenger app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=179.46, Md=1.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=164.20, Md=1.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=13241.500, Z= -1.889, p=0.059).

Imo: the behaviour of users in installing Imo app on their smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=173.37, Md=0.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=172.50, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14454.000, Z=-0.857, p=0.392).

6rounds: the behaviour of users in installing 6rounds app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=173.36, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=172.73, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14474.000, Z=-0.857, p=0.392).

Skout: the behaviour of users in installing Skout app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic level students (mean rank=173.23, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=172.68, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U= 14480.500, Z=-0.316, p=0.752).

Azar: the behaviour of users in installing Azar app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic levels (mean rank=173.37, Md=0.00) scored higher on school students than university students (mean rank=172.50, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14454.000, Z=-0.857, p=0.392).

Chatroulette: the behaviour of users in installing Chatroulette app on smartphones does not seem to be different across the two academic levels (mean rank=173.73, Md=0.00) scored higher on university students than school students (mean rank=172.50, Md=0.00) of university students (n=199) and school students (n=146), (U=14421.000, Z =-0.444, p=0.657).

So, to sum up, Mann-Whitney U Test has shown that there are statistical differences in the behaviour of users in installing WhatsApp, ooVoo and Omegle apps on their smartphones across the two academic levels. On the other hand, no difference was found in the behaviour of users in installing any of Snapchat, Viber, Skype, Messenger, Imo, 6rounds, Skout, Azar, and Chatroulette apps on their smartphones. This can be due their needs or what they prefer and feel that the app fills in their needs requirements.

Appendix (9): Smartphone ownership among participants by gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 3: Mann-Whitney Test Grouping variable: genderQuestion U value p-value Mean Rank

Male Female

What type of the phone do you have? 8498.000 .000 157.33 212.19

Appendix (10): Users knowledge by gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 4: Mann-Whitney Test, users awareness by gender Question U value p-value Mean Rank

Male Female

What do you do with your old phone? 12344.000 0.895 173.91 172.52

Have you ever cleared your browsing history? 12115.500 0.800 171.86 174.04

Have you ever received any pictures from people in your contacts? 11682.000 0.171 170.38 179.34

Do you take steps to keep yourself safe from online threats? 10050.500 0.002 163.36 194.49

How much do you think your parents know about what do you on your phone? 9543.000 0.000 184.39 145.49

Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge? 12074.000 0.913 171.69 172.76

Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? 11734.500 0.183 170.59 178.82

Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation? 12225.000 0.786 172.60 173.96

Have you ever received any advice about online security? 11575.000 0.144 169.94 180.40

Have you ever avoided an app rather than share personal information? 12077.000 0.760 171.70 174.43

Have you ever turned off the location tracking (GPS) on your phone for safety? 10107.000 0.004 163.59 193.93

Have you ever had concerns about your personal information? 12101.500 0.792 173.20 170.82

Have you ever had concerns about your privacy in connection with phone use? 11780.500 0.416 175.22 167.64

Have you had concerns about revealing your location in connection with phone use? 11524.000 0.245 176.27 165.10

Appendix (11): Users experience of having a smartphone by gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 5: Mann-Whitney Test, users experience of having a smartphone by genderQuestion U value p-value Mean Rank

Male Female

How long since you got your first Internet enabled phone? 10903.500 .067 179.81 158.40

Have you ever lost a phone or had it stolen? 11988.000 .497 171.63 177.97

Have you ever received pictures from people in your contacts? 11682.000 .171 170.38 179.34

Have you received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally? 11382.000 .192 176.85 163.69

Have you ever received any content from other people that you found upsetting, offensive, or bulling? 11801.000 .340 175.14 167.84

Appendix (12): Users behaviour in using smartphones by gender

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 6: Mann-Whitney Test Grouping variable: gender for users behaviour Question U value p-value Mean Rank

Male Female

Hhow many contacts do you have on your phone? 11754.000 .473 170.37 177.62

What do you most use your phone for? 11230.000 .117 168.52 185.40

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of yourself 10325.000 .002 164.82 194.27

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of friends 10480.500 .003 165.13 191.75

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of family 10702.000 .009 166.36 190.58

Which of the following do you store on your phone Text messages 12366.000 .848 173.82 172.74

Which of the following do you store on your phone Email 11367.000 .107 177.91 162.94

Do you use your phone for school-related activities? 11691.000 .236 170.41 180.88

How often do you change your mobile phone? 12230.000 .875 173.38 172.09

What is your favourite place to use the Internet? 11628.500 .348 175.84 166.13

Do you ever install apps on your phone? 12190.000 .622 172.46 174.31

Is Snapchat app installed on your smart phone? 10494.500 .009 165.51 191.09

Is WhatsApp app installed on your smart phone? 12193.500 .860 173.53 171.73

Is Viber app installed on your smart phone? 11843.000 .359 171.04 177.74

Is ooVoo app installed on your smart phone? 10290.500 .000 164.67 193.11

Is Skype app installed on your smart phone? 10813.500 .038 179.18 158.06

Is Messenger app installed on your smart phone? 12220.000 .871 172.58 174.01

Is Imo app installed on your smart phone? 12271.500 .520 173.21 172.50

Is 6rounds app installed on your smart phone? 12292.500 .850 173.12 172.71

Is Skout app installed on your smart phone? 12170.500 .264 173.62 171.50

Is Omegle app installed on your smart phone? 12318.000 .990 172.98 173.04

Is Azar app installed on your smart phone? 12271.500 .520 173.21 172.50

Is Chatroulette app installed on your smart phone? 11918.000 .066 174.66 169.00

Appendix (13): Smartphone devices ownership by age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 7: Smartphone devices ownership by ageQuestion Age Mean Rank P-value Pairwise Comparison of age groups Adj.SigWhat type of the phone do you have? 12-16 199.62 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 0.000

17-21 157.41 12-16 vs 22 0.001

22 142.21 17-21 vs 22 .980

Appendix (14): Users Awareness by age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 8: Users Awareness by ageQuestion Age Mean Rank P-value Pairwise Comparison of age groups Adj.Sig. What do you do with your old phone? 12-16 182.65 .154 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 163.40 12-16 vs 22 22 179.20 17-21 vs 22 Have you ever cleared your browsing history? 12-16 187.33 .001 12-16 vs 17-21 .001 0.05

17-21 156.27 12-16 vs 22 1.000 0.05

22 181.25 17-21 vs 22 .147 Do you take steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted message 12-16 195.06 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .001 0.05

17-21 158.27 12-16 vs 22 .004 22 146.93 17-21 vs 22 1.000 0.05

Do your parents ever check how you use your phone? 12-16 216.39 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 137.78 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 153.80 17-21 vs 22 .654 0.05

How much do you think your parents know about what do you do on your phone? 12-16 146.29 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 187.30 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 212.39 17-21 vs 22 .365 0.05

Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge? 12-16 154.62 .002 12-16 vs 17-21 .001 0.05

17-21 188.03 12-16 vs 22 .594 0.05

22 173.25 17-21 vs 22 .912 Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? 12-16 174.04 .659 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 170.60 12-16 vs 22 22 178.36 17-21 vs 22 Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation? 12-16 171.64 .878 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 173.99 12-16 vs 22 22 174.00 17-21 vs 22 Have you ever received any advice about online security? 12-16 177.59 .481 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 169.46 12-16 vs 22 22 170.26 17-21 vs 22 Have you ever avoided an app rather than share personal information? 12-16 177.86 .037 12-16 vs 17-21 .216 0.05

17-21 162.22 12-16 vs 22 .811 22 192.43 17-21 vs 22 .064 Have you ever turned off the location tracking (GPS) on your phone for safety? 12-16 211.85 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 141.43 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 152.79 17-21 vs 22 1.000 0.05

Have you ever had concerns about Your personal information in connection with phone use? 12-16 165.49 .115 12-16 vs 17-21 17-21 173.58 12-16 vs 22 22 193.33 17-21 vs 22 Have you ever had concerns about Your privacy in connection with phone use? 12-16 169.65 .448 12-16 vs 17-21 17-21 172.36 12-16 vs 22 22 187.04 17-21 vs 22 Have you ever had concerns about Revealing your location in connection with phone use? 12-16 181.56 .166 12-16 vs 17-21 17-21 164.08 12-16 vs 22 22 176.61 17-21 vs 22 Appendix (15): Users experience of smartphones by age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 9: Users experience of smartphones by ageQuestion Age Mean Rank P-value Pairwise Comparison of age groups Adj.Sig. Approximately, how long since you got your first Internet enabled phone? 12-16 105.86 0.000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 213.32 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 261.39 17-21 vs 22 .016 Have you ever lost a phone, or had it stolen? 12-16 178.49 0.150 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 164.97 12-16 vs 22 22 187.90 17-21 vs 22 Have you ever received any pictures from people in your contacts? 12-16 156.37 0.000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 183.11 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 193.00 17-21 vs 22 .910 0.05

Have you received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally 12-16 154.85 0.003 12-16 vs 17-21 .003 0.05

17-21 187.30 12-16 vs 22 .188 0.05

22 182.64 17-21 vs 22 1.000 Have you ever received any content from other people that you found up setting, offensive, or bullying? 12-16 173.64 0.690 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 174.53 12-16 vs 22 22 165.04 17-21 vs 22

Appendix (16): Users behaviour by age

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 10: Users behaviour by ageQuestion Age Mean Rank P-value Pairwise Comparison of age groups Adj.Sig. Approximately, how many contacts do you have on your phone? 12-16 156.29 .002 12-16 vs 17-21 .071 0.05

17-21 178.54 12-16 vs 22 .002 0.05

22 206.95 17-21 vs 22 .167 0.05

What do you most use your phone for? 12-16 178.77 .466 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 166.85 12-16 vs 22 22 179.93 17-21 vs 22 Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?-Photos of yourself 12-16 182.96 .144 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 168.10 12-16 vs 22 22 160.60 17-21 vs 22 Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?-Photos of friends 12-16 170.04 .765 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 174.06 12-16 vs 22 22 179.43 17-21 vs 22 Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?-Photos of family 12-16 186.84 .018 12-16 vs 17-21 .066 0.05

17-21 166.10 12-16 vs 22 .058 22 154.48 17-21 vs 22 1.000 Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?-Text messages 12-16 173.88 .003 12-16 vs 17-21 1.000 0.05

17-21 179.18 12-16 vs 22 .019 0.05

22 150.93 17-21 vs 22 .002 Which of the following do you store on your phone (select all that apply)?-Email 12-16 148.68 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 195.35 12-16 vs 22 .088 0.05

22 178.69 17-21 vs 22 .670 Do you use your phone for school-related activities? 12-16 151.77 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 187.85 12-16 vs 22 .002 22 195.90 17-21 vs 22 1.000 0.05

How often do you change your mobile phone? 12-16 168.25 .543 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 176.79 12-16 vs 22 22 175.52 17-21 vs 22 What is your favourite place to use the Internet? 12-16 176.71 .430 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 166.71 12-16 vs 22 22 183.61 17-21 vs 22 Do you ever install apps on your phone? 12-16 171.25 .629 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 173.82 12-16 vs 22 22 176.00 17-21 vs 22 Is Snapchat app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 175.24 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .333 0.05

17-21 190.45 12-16 vs 22 .000 0.05

22 99.96 17-21 vs 22 .000 Is WhatsApp app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 144.48 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 184.98 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 227.36 17-21 vs 22 .014 Is Viber app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 167.09 .231 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 175.57 12-16 vs 22 22 183.96 17-21 vs 22 Is ooVoo app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 201.35 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .000 0.05

17-21 152.49 12-16 vs 22 .000 22 151.11 17-21 vs 22 1.000 0.05

Is Skype app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 164.57 .098 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 183.88 12-16 vs 22 22 161.64 17-21 vs 22 Is Messenger app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 163.01 .000 12-16 vs 17-21 .003 0.05

17-21 190.83 12-16 vs 22 .273 0.05

22 141.07 17-21 vs 22 .000 0.05

Is Imo app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 172.50 .550 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 173.60 12-16 vs 22 22 172.50 17-21 vs 22 Is 6rounds app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 173.36 .614 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 172.10 12-16 vs 22 22 175.11 17-21 vs 22 Is Skout app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 172.68 .531 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 172.60 12-16 vs 22 22 175.61 17-21 vs 22 Is Omegle app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 181.04 .003 12-16 vs 17-21 .006 0.05

17-21 167.80 12-16 vs 22 .035 22 164.50 17-21 vs 22 1.000 0.05

Is Azar app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 172.50 .550 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 173.60 12-16 vs 22 22 172.50 17-21 vs 22 Is Chatroulette app installed on your smart phone? 12-16 173.73 .373 12-16 vs 17-21 0.05

17-21 171.20 12-16 vs 22 22 177.21 17-21 vs 22 Appendix (17): Smartphone ownership among participants by academic level

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 11: Mann-Whitney Test by Academic levelQuestion U value P-value Mean Rank

University School

What type of the phone do you have? 10624.500 .000 153.39 200.72

Appendix (18): Users knowledge by level of education

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 12: Mann-Whitney Test by level of education for users awarenessQuestion U value P-value Mean Rank

University School

What do you do with your old phone? 13281.000 .100 166.74 182.65

Have you ever cleared your browsing history? 12289.500 .001 161.57 187.33

Do you take steps to keep yourself safe from online threats 11160.000 .000 155.86 195.06

Do your parents ever check how you use your phone? 8191.500 .000 141.16 216.39

How much do you think your parents know about what do you do on your phone? 10628.000 .000 192.59 146.29

Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge? 11844.000 .001 184.88 154.62

Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? 14517.000 .983 173.05 172.93

Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation? 14329.000 .609 173.99 171.64

Have you ever received any advice about online security? 13857.000 .227 169.63 177.59

Have you ever avoided an app rather than share personal information? 13651.000 .261 168.60 177.86

Have you ever turned off the location tracking (GPS) on your phone for safety? 8865.500 .000 144.55 210.86

Have you ever had concerns about Your personal information in connection with phone use? 13430.000 .143 177.67 165.49

Have you ever had concerns about Your privacy in connection with phone use? 14038.000 .499 175.46 169.65

Have you ever had concerns about Revealing your location in connection with phone use? 13105.000 .057 165.85 182.74

Appendix (19): Users experience by level of education

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 13: Mann-Whitney Test by Level of Education for users experienceQuestion U value P-value Mean Rank

University School

Approximately, how long since you got your first Internet enabled phone? 4651.000 .000 223.63 105.64

Have you ever lost a phone or had it stolen? 13893.000 .314 169.81 178.49

Have you ever received any pictures from people in your contacts? 12099.500 .000 185.20 156.37

Have you received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally? 12049.500 .002 185.45 156.03

Have you ever received any content from other people that you found upsetting, offensive, or bullying? 14433.000 .874 172.53 173.64

Appendix (20): Users behaviour in using smartphones by level of education

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 14: Mann-Whitney Test by Academic levelQuestion U value P-value Mean Rank

University School

Approximately, how many contacts do you have on your phone? 12247.000 .004 183.83 157.31

What do you most use your phone for? 13575.000 .211 168.22 180.65

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of yourself 13236.500 .058 166.52 182.96

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of friends 14118.000 .539 175.20 170.04

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of family 12665.500 .007 163.65 186.84

Which of the following do you store on your phone Text messages 14571.000 .900 173.22 173.88

Which of the following do you store on your phone Email 10805.000 .000 192.70 147.50

Do you use your phone for school-related activities? 11432.500 .000 189.55 151.77

How often do you change your mobile phone? 13855.000 .272 176.53 168.25

What is your favourite place to use the Internet? 13830.000 .385 169.50 177.77

Do you ever install apps on your phone? 14272.000 .380 174.28 171.25

Is Snapchat app installed on your smart phone? 14372.000 .839 172.22 174.06

Is WhatsApp app installed on your smart phone? 10536.000 .000 193.06 145.66

Is Viber app installed on your smart phone? 13663.500 .128 177.34 167.09

Is ooVoo app installed on your smart phone? 10388.000 .000 152.20 201.35

Is Skype app installed on your smart phone? 13468.500 .180 178.32 165.75

Is Messenger app installed on your smart phone? 13241.500 .059 179.46 164.20

Is Imo app installed on your smart phone? 14454.000 .392 173.37 172.50

Is 6rounds app installed on your smart phone? 14474.000 .755 172.73 173.36

Is Skout app installed on your smart phone? 14480.500 .752 173.23 172.68

Is Omegle app installed on your smart phone? 13353.000 .001 167.10 181.04

Is Azar app installed on your smart phone? 14454.000 .392 173.37 172.50

Is Chatroulette app installed on your smart phone? 14421.000 .657 172.47 173.73

Appendix (21): Communalities

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 15: CommunalitiesInitial Extraction

Approximately, how long since you got your first Internet enabled phone? 1.000 .605

Have you ever lost a phone or had it stolen? 1.000 .557

Have you ever received any pictures from people in your contacts? 1.000 .615

Have you received/sent any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally 1.000 .589

Have you ever received any content from other people that you found upsetting, offensive. 1.000 .648

What do you most use your phone for? 1.000 .726

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of yourself 1.000 .714

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of friends 1.000 .752

Which of the following do you store on your phone Photos of family 1.000 .679

Which of the following do you store on your phone Text messages 1.000 .590

Which of the following do you store on your phone Email 1.000 .558

Do you use your phone for school-related activities? 1.000 .448

How often do you change your mobile phone? 1.000 .596

What do you do with your old phone? 1.000 .643

Have you ever cleared your browsing history? 1.000 .474

Do you take steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages 1.000 .691

Do your parents ever check how you use your phone? 1.000 .586

How much do you think your parents know about what do you do on your phone? 1.000 .599

Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge? 1.000 .550

Do you ever install apps on your phone? 1.000 .496

Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? 1.000 .634

Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation? 1.000 .534

Have you ever received any advice about online security? 1.000 .630

Is Snapchat app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .622

Is WhatsApp app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .636

Is Skype app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .622

Is Messenger app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .586

Have you ever avoided an app rather than share personal information? 1.000 .549

Have you ever turned off the location tracking (GPS) on your phone for safety? 1.000 .603

Have you ever had concerns about your personal information in connection with phone use? 1.000 .545

Have you ever had concerns about Your privacy in connection with phone use? 1.000 .575

Have you ever had concerns about Revealing your location in connection with phone use? 1.000 .592

Is Omegle app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .603

Is Skout app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .738

Is Imo app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .651

Is ooVoo app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .621

What is your favorite place to use the Internet? 1.000 .515

Is 6rounds app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .707

Is Viber app installed on your smart phone? 1.000 .600

What type of the phone do you have? 1.000 .654

Appendix (22): Rotated Component Matrix Component

Table STYLEREF 1 s 9 SEQ Table * ARABIC s 1 16: Rotated Component Matrix Component1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Storing photos of friends on smartphone .833 Storing photos of yourself on smartphone .817 Storing photos of family on smartphone .798 Installing Skout App on smartphones .832 Installing 6rounds App on smartphones .828 Installing Imo App on smartphones .791 Installing Omegle App on smartphones .448 Installing WhatsApp App on smartphones .719 Period of getting the first Internet enabled phone .624 Turning off the location tracking (GPS) on smartphones for safety -.549 Storing emails on smartphones .485 Receiving pictures from people in contact list .448 How much do you think your parents know about what do you do on your phone? .702 Would you mind if your parents check your phone without your knowledge? .646 Do your parents ever check how you use your phone? -.639 Installing Messenger app on smartphones .698 Installing Snapchat app smartphones .648 Having concerns about revealing location in connection with phone use .703 Having concerns about privacy in connection with phone use .644 Having concerns about personal information in connection with phone use .515 Period of changing mobile phones -.707 Installing ooVoo app on smartphones .561 Avoiding an app rather than sharing personal information .682 Clearing browsing history .589 Receiving any content from other people that you found up setting, offensive, or bullying -.751 Receiving/sending any messages or photos from/to contacts you do not know personally .690 Installing Viber app on smartphones .705 Installing Skype app on smartphones .493 Storing text messages on smartphones -.412 Are you aware that there may be risks when you install an app? .702 Are you aware that apps ask for permissions before installation? .587 Installing apps on smartphones .633 Losing a phone or had it stolen... -.579 Phone Type -.456 What do you do with your old phone? -.758 Using smartphones for school-related activities .405 The most use of smartphones .823 Favourite place to use the Internet Receiving advice about online security .753

Taking steps to keep yourself safe from online threats such as bullying, unwanted messages .464

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.aa. Rotation converged in 22 iterations.