Who wants to leave Morocco? Determinants of emigration plans in Morocco.

Who wants to leave Morocco? Determinants of emigration plans in Morocco.

Introduction

In the contemporary day, our global society exists inside a state of interconnectedness, wherein gaps and inequities in resource accessibility are prevalent. The primary factor contributing to emigration is the uneven allocation of resources and opportunities across different geographical regions. The issue of resource ownership, particularly pertaining to natural resources, and the subsequent safeguarding of such ownership, leads to the formulation of policies and implementation of measures aimed at deterring unauthorised access, which may involve the use of signage, barriers, authorization protocols, and similar strategies. The global pursuit of talent and the implementation of diverse recruitment practises are driven by the uneven allocation of human resources necessary for enhancing the value of raw materials and fostering the growth of a service-oriented economy.

This emigration studies examines the factors that drive individuals to emigrate (motives), the characteristics of those who choose to emigrate (selectivity), the decision-making process involved in leaving or remaining in a particular location, and the various impacts of emigration on individuals, families, communities, and society as a whole in both the place of origin, destination, and during the transit (so what question). In order to enhance comprehension of emigration motives and anticipate the responses of individuals and families to policy measures and other indicators, it is imperative to direct our attention towards the process of emigration decision-making (Rossi,1955).

Individuals make judgements regarding relocation within a multifaceted context characterised by numerous uncertainties (Carling and Schewel, 2018). Numerous elements and individuals exert influence on the decision-making process (Levy, 2020). Emigration can be regarded as perspective wherein the world is conceptualised as a complex system or network comprising various agents, including individuals, institutions, and organisations. The actors that comprise the emigration sector encompass many entities such as families, communities, public and private organisations, nation-states, and international organisations (De Jong and Gardner, 1981). In this process of decision making social system situated inside an environment, typically engaging in interactions (open system), although occasionally existing independently (closed system) (Bertalaffy, 1968).

Overview of International Emigration

International emigration has a rich history shaped by significant turning points, including the disintegration of medieval societies and subsequent changes such as the Renaissance, commercial revolution, colonization, agricultural and industrial revolutions, emergence of free market societies, modern education, and technological advancements. These factors have collectively contributed to the growth of international emigration over time. The recent phenomenon of globalization, driven by revolutionary changes in information technology, has further intensified emigration, with economic blocks like the European Union opening doors for international emigration among member countries (Rosen, 2007).

Emigration, defined as the movement of people for living or working purposes, has become a global phenomenon with significant impacts and complexities (Huzdik, 2014; UN, 2016b). The current overview of international emigration highlights its dual nature, presenting advantages and disadvantages when viewed from a country's development perspective. Emigration is recognized as a positive force for development, providing receiving countries with needed knowledge, expertise, and skilled/unskilled labor. However, challenges arise, such as the potential strain on resources when unwelcome migrants, including refugees, enter the receiving country. Simultaneously, the sending country may face the negative consequence of brain drain, losing skilled labor despite receiving remittances (UN, 2016a).

Economic, political, family reunification and natural disaster factors contribute to emigration. Conflicts within sovereign states drive people to leave, exemplified by the civil wars in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and Syria. Economic emigration, driven by poverty and a lack of job opportunities, is prevalent, particularly in emigration from least developed countries particularly in African continents to developed countries. The ease of travel and the rapid flow of information, facilitated by globalization, have further accelerated emigration, making it a major demographic force globally (UN, 2016a).

The scale of international emigration is substantial, with an estimated 244 million migrants worldwide in 2015, constituting 3.3% of the total world population. Europe and East/West Asia are identified as the most popular migrant destinations, hosting 76 million and 75 million migrants, respectively. The United States leads as the individual country hosting the largest number of international migrants (47 million), and Northern America ranks third globally with 54 million migrants (UN, 2016b). This data underscores the significance of emigration as a widespread and impactful phenomenon shaping demographic patterns worldwide.

The reduction in the initial financial cost of emigration is a noteworthy development, facilitated by factors such as low transport costs, affordable accommodation facilities, online travel arrangements, and reliable destinations offering low-cost insurance packages ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5UWWqxM4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barrell et al., 2010)","plainCitation":"(Barrell et al., 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7567,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/C7G76XXN"],"itemData":{"id":7567,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies","ISSN":"0021-9886","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies","note":"publisher: Wiley Online Library","page":"373-395","title":"EU enlargement and migration: Assessing the macroeconomic impacts","volume":"48","author":[{"family":"Barrell","given":"Ray"},{"family":"FitzGerald","given":"John"},{"family":"Riley","given":"Rebecca"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Barrell et al., 2010). International conventions on migrants, a peaceful global environment, the encouragement of skilled and professional labour emigration, and modern, low-cost communication facilities have become significant incentives for international emigration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"sU2lIf8K","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Castles, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Castles, 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7570,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/FSWZQ9TW"],"itemData":{"id":7570,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Globalizations","DOI":"10.1080/14747731.2011.576847","ISSN":"1474-7731, 1474-774X","issue":"3","journalAbbreviation":"Globalizations","language":"en","page":"311-324","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","title":"Migration, Crisis, and the Global Labour Market","volume":"8","author":[{"family":"Castles","given":"Stephen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",6]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Castles, 2011). Additionally, natural disasters, wars, conflicts, and deteriorating political environments contribute to emigration trends. The free movement of labour is facilitated by bilateral and multilateral treaties among countries (Rosen, 2007).

Types of Emigration

International emigration is a complex phenomenon categorized into various types based on influencing factors. Jenisons (2004) broadly identified four types of emigration:

Labour emigration involving cross-border movement for employment with high-skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled migrants;

Return emigration, where individuals intend to return to their home country after residing abroad for at least a year;

Chain emigration, characterized by individuals moving for family reunification and formation;

Asylum seekers, involving individuals seeking refugee status in a foreign country.

Another common classificatio categorization in the literature is forced, retirement and voluntary emigration (Koppenberg, 2012). Forced emigration comprises asylum seekers, refugees, and internally displaced persons forced to move due to struggles in their home country (Bell et al., 2010). International retirement emigrates are those retirees purchase property abroad for residence (Bell et al., 2010). In contrast, voluntary emigration involves those moving for various purposes, including labour supply, driven by personal gains (Zetter, 2015).

Economic emigration is a widely used term, defined as moving to another country to improve one's living standard through better-paying jobs and facilities. Political emigrants move due to civil wars and political discrimination, while environmental migrants relocate due to environmental conditions like desertification, rising sea levels, and droughts (Laczko & Aghazarm, 2009). These categories evolve over time as researchers identify new emigration types based on emerging push and pull factors, reflecting the dynamic nature of emigration in response to changing socioeconomic and geopolitical conditions.

Theoretical Constructs of Emigration Mind-set

Despite the diverse insights from various disciplines such as Economics, Sociology, Geography, Commerce, Management, Law, Political Science, Demography, and Psychology, there is no single comprehensive theory that encompasses all aspects of international emigration (Prakash, 2009). Incoherence and disjointed nature of existing theories are emphasizing the complexity of theorizing international emigration (Massey et al. 1993). Nevertheless, these fragmented theories play a crucial role in guiding studies that aim to analyse relationships between correlated variables in the context of international emigration.

The explanations for international emigration and forced displacement can be categorized into three main types:

Macro theories,

Meso theories,

Micro theories

Macro theories focus on structural conditions acting as "push" and "pull" factors, such as economic conditions and emigration legislation. These theories are crucial for explaining forced displacement and the initial stages of voluntary emigration. However, they struggle to account for the persistence of voluntary emigration and the variation in mobility from different places (Hammar et al., 1997).

Meso theories shift the focus from objective indicators to complex systems of linkages between states, introducing concepts like emigration systems and networks (Hagen-Zanker, 2008). Emigration is viewed as occurring within a system of countries connected by economic, political, and cultural ties, while networks involve individual and collective actors linked by social and symbolic ties. Networks play a crucial role in influencing emigration flows, making movement more attractive and feasible for others, leading to phenomena like "chain emigration" (Faist & Faist, 2001).

Micro theories concentrate on individual decision-making, analysing how potential emigration assess the costs and benefits of moving. Rational choice theory is often applied, though controversial, in understanding individual decisions. Micro theories complement macro and meso theories by examining how individuals process and assess conditions that generate emigration (Faist & Faist, 2000).

Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 2: Theories of Emigration

Research on emigration spans various disciplines, including Economics, Sociology, Geography, and Demography, with the goal of theorizing the causes and effects of emigration (Prakash, 2009).

The economic point of view on emigration is divided into two main categories: Macro theories and Micro theories. Macro Theories includes Classical Theory, Neo-classical Theory, Keynesian Theory and Dual Labour Market Theory whereas Micro Theories includes Neo-classical Theory, Value-expectancy Theory and New Economics of emigration. These economic theories provide various perspectives on the motivations and outcomes of emigration, encompassing both macro-level structural factors and micro-level individual and household considerations.

Push and Pull Factors

Push factors encourage people to leave their points of origin and settle elsewhere, while pull factors attract migrants to new areas ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3GQ5DxoX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Parkins, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Parkins, 2010)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7580,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/6IIXEW63"],"itemData":{"id":7580,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"American Review of Political Economy","ISSN":"1551-1383","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"American Review of Political Economy","note":"publisher: Zagros Madjd-Sadjadi, Ph. D.","page":"6","title":"Push and pull factors of migration","volume":"8","author":[{"family":"Parkins","given":"Natasha C"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Parkins, 2010). For example, high unemployment is a common push factor, while an abundance of jobs is an effective pull factor.

The period of most intense migration occurred during the first three decades of the 19th century, when Newfoundland and Labrador's population almost quadrupled from 19,000 in 1803 to 75,000 in 1836. Newfoundland and Labrador's growing economy and small resident population made it more than capable of absorbing large numbers of immigrants during the early decades of the 19th century; these same factors also made it an attractive destination for migrants wishing to escape poverty and population congestion prevalent in their points of origin.

Neo-Classical Theory

The Neo-classical Theory stands as one of the earliest and most renowned theories explaining the economic implications of labour emigration (Arango, 2000). At its core, this theory posits that the geographical imbalance between the demand and supply of labour serves as the primary catalyst for international emigration. In regions where labour supply is elastic but accompanied by low wages and marginal productivity, individuals are compelled to migrate to countries offering higher wages (Massey et al., 1993).

A fundamental concept within the Neo-classical framework is the generation of remittances, serving as a potent incentive for labour-sending countries to actively promote emigration. Moreover, the emigration process is seen as contributing positively to the economy of the receiving country by fostering production and potentially reducing income inequality and wage differentials (Prakash, 2009).

However, the Neo-classical Theory assumes that the elimination of wage differentials would lead to a minimum level of labour emigration. Harris and Todaro (1970) emphasize that the decision to migrate is significantly influenced by job opportunities available to migrants initially and the expected income differentials. The optimistic outlook of the Neo-classical approach anticipates reduced poverty, unemployment, and overpopulation in labour-sending countries.

Despite its explanatory power, challenges and critiques exist. The theory assumes that the international flow of labour primarily transpires in labour markets, neglecting the potential roles of other markets in the emigration process (Massey et al., 1993). Additionally, the theory assumes that immigrants will not return to their home countries as long as they continue to benefit from wages, education, and prestige in the host country, potentially leading to reduced wages for unskilled labour in the host nation (Constant and Massey, 2002).

Furthermore, the Neo-classical Theory posits that labour market rules and controls can effectively regulate international emigration in both sending and receiving countries (Massey, Durand, & Malone, 2005). While regulations do exist, especially in the context of labour-exporting countries, challenges persist, as evidenced by restrictions imposed by governments, such as those in Sri Lanka on mothers with young children accepting overseas jobs as housemaids.

In developing countries, the assumptions of the Neo-classical approach may face challenges. In many cases, the first emigration is not necessarily voluntary, with factors like poverty, civil conflicts, and state policies playing pivotal roles (UNESCAP, 2007). Socio-cultural reasons, such as power relations within families, kinship systems, and gender dynamics, may influence non-migrants to stay home, challenging the optimistic expectations of the Neo-classical perspective. The decision against out-migration might be made in the interest of children's education, security, and overall well-being, adding layers of complexity to the emigration decision-making process.

New Economics of Labour emigration (NELM):

The New Economics of Labour migration (NELM) has emerged as a recent theoretical perspective designed to challenge the assumptions and conclusions of the Neo-classical Theory. Unlike the Neo-classical focus on individual decision-making, NELM shifts its attention to the micro-level, considering collective decisions made by households or families as essential (Stark & Levhari, 1982). The key insight of NELM lies in viewing emigration decisions not only as a means to increase income but also as a risk management strategy in response to market failures, extending beyond labour market failures (Taylor, 1999).

The NELM approach emphasizes that emigration decisions are not solely individual choices but are collective decisions made by households or families. It recognizes that the objective extends beyond income enhancement and encompasses risk diversification in the face of market and labour market failures (Stark, 1991). By studying individual behaviour within the context of a group, households can effectively diversify economic risks. Family members may engage in income-generating activities both in the country of origin and the host country, minimizing the risks of job insecurity and income fluctuations. The compensation of deteriorating local income with migrant remittances and vice versa is a crucial aspect of this risk management strategy (Massey et al., 1993). The return of emigrants to the country of origin after achieving specific goals, such as savings, insurance, household needs, and skill acquisition, is a logical outcome (Cassarino, 2004)). The theory recognizes the temporal nature of emigration decisions and envisions a cyclical process where migrants return after fulfilling predetermined objectives.

Compared to the Neo-classical Theory, NELM introduces notable improvements. It surpasses the Neo-classical emphasis on wage differentials by incorporating the group role of households. The assumption that wage differentials and household decision-making are mutually exclusive is challenged by NELM. While wage differentials remain a significant factor, NELM sheds light on the structural conditions of individuals beyond the labor market. The conceptual framework under NELM underscores the idea that remittances function as part of a mutually beneficial arrangement between migrants and their families, positioning labour as a pooled resource within households (Lucas & Stark, 1985). In essence, NELM provides a more nuanced understanding of emigration dynamics by considering the collective role of families and households, surpassing the individual-centric focus of the Neo-classical explanation.

Dual Labour Market Theory

Introduced by Michael J. Piore in 1979, the Dual Labour Market Theory represents a departure from micro-level models, providing a distinctive perspective on international emigration dynamics. In contrast to viewing emigration as a consequence of individual decisions, this theory posits that international emigration results from the intrinsic labor demands of industrialized societies (Massey et al., 1993). According to Piore (1979), the permanent demand from industrialized and developed nations drives international emigration, serving their development agendas. Unlike other theories that emphasize push factors in sending countries, the Dual Labour Market Theory focuses on pull factors in receiving countries.

Push factors, such as low wages and high unemployment, are identified as intrinsic to sending countries, while pull factors in receiving countries are characterized by essential and unavoidable needs fulfilled by foreign workers. The theory underscores four core features of industrialized countries that explain their attraction for labor from other nations: structural inflation, motivational problems, economic dualism, and the demography of the labor supply (Massey et al., 1993).

In contrast to macro-level models, the Dual Labour Market Theory proposes implications that diverge from both Neo-classical Economics and New Economics of Labour emigration (NELM) in certain aspects (Massey et al., 1993). Notably, the theory challenges the conventional understanding of emigration by asserting that the demand for migrant workers is driven by the structural needs of the economy rather than by wage differentials or the desires of households and families. This demand-driven perspective reshapes the narrative around international labor emigration, positioning it as a response to the intrinsic needs of receiving countries, thus distinguishing it from other prevalent theories.

Network Theory

Labor emigration encompasses diverse motivations, including a desire for higher individual income, risk diversification of household income, international displacement with a market penetration strategy, and recruitment programs to meet employer demands for low-wage workers (Dustmann and Glitz, 2005). However, understanding actual emigration patterns requires consideration of additional factors such as geographical proximity to nation-states, the presence of social networks, institutional factors, and cultural and historical influences (De Haas, 2010b).

The concept of emigration networks, closely tied to the idea of social capital, plays a pivotal role in shaping emigration dynamics. Arango (2000) defines emigration networks as sets of interpersonal ties connecting migrants with relatives, friends, or fellow countrymen at home. These networks facilitate the exchange of information, provide financial support, and offer assistance in finding employment and accommodation, thereby reducing the costs and risks associated with emigration and increasing the expected net returns (Massey et al., 1993). The existence of these networks has a positive cascading effect, enhancing opportunities for subsequent migrants in their decision-making process.

Network connections, viewed as a form of social capital, grant migrants extensive access to employment opportunities abroad (Massey et al., 1993). Moreover, diaspora and other networks wield influence over migrants' destination choices, showcasing the significance of social connections in shaping emigration patterns (Vertovec, 2002).

The network emigration mechanism yields positive effects on the development aspect of the sending country. However, it also introduces considerable legal, political, and financial obstacles related to immigration matters in the receiving country. Van Naerssen et al. (2008) identify transnational communities as mechanisms reproducing sociocultural practices abroad, contributing to the development of migrant businesses in both origin and host countries. These transnational businesses foster economic, social, political, and cultural ties, creating a complex interplay of influences in the emigration landscape (Prakash, 2009).

Migration System Theory

The emigration System Theory posits that emigration induces changes in economic, social, cultural, and institutional conditions in both sending and receiving countries (De Haas, 2010). Linked closely to the Network Theory, it explores macro and micro linkages in the emigration process, considering factors like kinship, friendship systems, economic structures, political systems, and immigration policies (Fawcett & Arnold, 1987). Unlike other models, this theory underscores the reciprocal relationship between emigration and development, relevant for a comprehensive theoretical framework (Kritz et al., 1992). It asserts that emigration, beyond economic impacts, contributes to social development, influencing the socio-economic landscape of both sending and receiving countries at macro and micro levels (De Haas, 2010a).

Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 4: The Aspirations-Capabilities Framework

Institutional Theory

In response to the imbalances in labor markets, institutions and organizations emerged with the onset of international emigration. These entities sought to address mismatches between labor-seeking industrialized countries and potential migrants from labor-sending nations. A surge in profit-seeking and not-for-profit organizations aimed to mediate issues related to migrants and employers. While not-for-profit organizations focused on humanitarian aspects, profit-seeking entities engaged in activities such as facilitating border crossings, forging documents, arranging marriages, and providing high-interest credit facilities (Massey et al., 1993). The Institutional Theory gains significance in contemporary contexts, advocating for robust policy frameworks benefiting both labour-sending and receiving countries.

Cumulative Causation Theory

Originating in Gunnar Myrdal's work in 1956, the Cumulative Causation Theory, further developed by Douglas Massey and colleagues, elucidates the growth of emigration flows over time. It explains how the initial migrant contributes social capital to individuals in the home country, facilitating job opportunities and reducing risks in destination countries (Massey et al., 1994). This, in turn, encourages more people to migrate, creating a cumulative effect (Jennissen, 2004). Aligned with the System Theory and/or Network Theory, this perspective provides insights into the mechanisms driving the perpetuation and expansion of emigration flows.

Migration theories focus on economic development, wage differentials, labor market factors, challenges, and individual behaviour within the context of groups. The New Economics of Labor emigration (NELM) challenges these assumptions, emphasizing collective decisions of households and risk management. The Dual Labour Market Theory asserts that emigration results from intrinsic labour demands in industrialized societies, with pull factors in receiving countries such as structural inflation, motivational problems, economic dualism, and demography.

Network Theory explains the factors influencing emigration, such as the role of social networks in reducing costs and risks, and community development contributing to transnational communities. Emigration system theory assumes that emigration induces changes in economic, social, cultural, and institutional conditions in both sending and receiving countries. Institutional theory emphasizes the emergence of organizations addressing labor market imbalances, with types of organizations including profit-seeking and not-for-profit entities.

Cumulative Causation Theory explains the growth of emigration flows over time, driven by social capital provided by initial migrants. It aligns with System and Network Theories, explaining how emigration influences subsequent emigrations. Overall, emigration theories provide valuable insights into the complex dynamics of emigration and its impact on societies.

Demography/ Economy of Morocco

As of 2021, Morocco has a population of approximately 37.271 million. The population is predominantly of Arab and Berber origin, constituting two main groups: urban and rural dwellers. Social classes vary, including landowners, peasants, and tenant farmers. Geographically, Moroccans are concentrated in the north and west regions, particularly favouring fertile areas near the Mediterranean Sea. Historically, the region experienced migrations and influences from Arab tribes expelled from Arabia, such as Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, contributing to the ethnic, cultural, and linguistic Arabization of Morocco. Religiously, about 99% of Moroccans are considered Sunni Muslims, either by practice or culture. A small but growing minority of Moroccan Christians includes local converts.

Economic Landscape of Morocco

As of 2023, Morocco's nominal GDP is $139 billion, ranking it as the 61st largest economy in the world. Morocco is ranked 127th in terms of nominal GDP per capita, which stands at $3,700. The components of GDP encompass agriculture (14.8%), industry (29.1%), and services (56.0%). According to 2013 data, the poverty rate is 4.8%, and 10% of the population lives on less than $3.65 per day. The economic indicators illustrate Morocco's multifaceted economic environment, promising growth trajectory, and diversified sectorial contributions, offering valuable insights into its overall economic health and progress.

Morocco operates as a relatively liberal economy, driven by the principles of supply and demand. The country has undergone significant economic reforms, particularly in the privatization of sectors once under government control, since 1993. As a key player in African economic affairs, Morocco ranks as the 5th largest economy in Africa by GDP (PPP). The World Economic Forum has recognized Morocco as the most competitive economy in North Africa, according to its African Competitiveness Report 20142015.

Emigration Scenario around Morocco

Morocco has witnessed significant and diverse emigration since gaining independence in 1956, evolving into one of the world's leading emigration countries. The global Moroccan diaspora is estimated at around 4 million, including second and third generations, out of a total population of approximately 34 million ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aPbLK1bQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(De Haas, 2014)","plainCitation":"(De Haas, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7571,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/KW5VMN2G"],"itemData":{"id":7571,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Migration Policy Institute","journalAbbreviation":"Migration Policy Institute","title":"Morocco: Setting the Stage for Becoming a Migration Transition Country?","volume":"19","author":[{"family":"De Haas","given":"Hein"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (De Haas, 2014).

The historical roots of Moroccan emigration are tied to colonialism, with labour migration to Algeria spurred by France's colonization of Algeria in 1830. Morocco's own colonial era (191256) marked migration to France, especially during the First and Second World Wars. The period from 1962 to 1972 saw a tenfold increase in registered Moroccans in major European countries due to labour recruitment agreements ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mMivZ1sn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(De Haas, 2014)","plainCitation":"(De Haas, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7571,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/KW5VMN2G"],"itemData":{"id":7571,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Migration Policy Institute","journalAbbreviation":"Migration Policy Institute","title":"Morocco: Setting the Stage for Becoming a Migration Transition Country?","volume":"19","author":[{"family":"De Haas","given":"Hein"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (De Haas, 2014).

Moroccan emigration has been predominantly towards Europe, but substantial numbers have also migrated to other Arab countries and Israel. The 1973 Oil Crisis and subsequent economic recessions led to unemployment among migrant workers, but migration restrictions did not result in massive returns; instead, they encouraged permanent settlement in Europe ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qiMBYS6T","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kassar et al., 2014)","plainCitation":"(Kassar et al., 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7574,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/JMWBJ4AB"],"itemData":{"id":7574,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The European Journal of Public Health","ISSN":"1464-360X","issue":"suppl_1","journalAbbreviation":"The European Journal of Public Health","note":"publisher: Oxford University Press","page":"2-5","title":"Emigration flows from North Africa to Europe","volume":"24","author":[{"family":"Kassar","given":"Hassne"},{"family":"Marzouk","given":"Diaa"},{"family":"Anwar","given":"Wagida A"},{"family":"Lakhoua","given":"Chrifa"},{"family":"Hemminki","given":"Kari"},{"family":"Khyatti","given":"Meriem"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kassar et al., 2014). Family reunification followed settlement, leading to continued migration despite high unemployment and destination countries' efforts to curb migration. High naturalization rates and low return migration reinforced the permanency of Moroccan presence in Europe.

From the mid-1980s onwards, Italy and Spain became new destinations for Moroccan workers, initially with a circular character. However, migration restrictions and border controls interrupted this, leading to increased irregular migration. More recent trends include emigration of high school and university graduates to the USA and Canada, reflecting the changing character of Moroccan society. In the realm of emigration, there has been a shift in focus among Moroccan low-skilled emigrants towards Italy and Spain since 1990, while higher-skilled individuals tend to migrate to the US and Canada ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jACYl2oc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(De Haas, 2014)","plainCitation":"(De Haas, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7571,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/KW5VMN2G"],"itemData":{"id":7571,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Migration Policy Institute","journalAbbreviation":"Migration Policy Institute","title":"Morocco: Setting the Stage for Becoming a Migration Transition Country?","volume":"19","author":[{"family":"De Haas","given":"Hein"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (De Haas, 2014).

Despite the 2008 Global Economic Crisis, Moroccan emigration persisted, with immigration restrictions contributing to low return rates. The post-independence emigration experience of Morocco is characterized by persistent, accelerating, and diversifying emigration, evolving identities and political engagement of second and third-generation migrants, and a recent decrease in emigration since 2008, accompanied by limited returns.

With over 3 million people of Moroccan descent living abroad, the country became the largest remittance receiver in Africa, receiving an estimated $5.2 billion in remittances in 2006. As of mid-year 2020, the number of emigrants from Morocco had risen to 3.3 million, indicating a continuous upward trend from the previous year's count of three million emigrants.

Moreover, post-1995, Morocco has emerged as a transit country for migrants and refugees from sub-Saharan Africa. Many of these individuals attempt to cross into Europe, but those who fail or choose not to enter Europe often opt to stay in Morocco as a second-best option rather than returning to their more unstable, unsafe, and substantially poorer home countries. This situation presents Moroccan society with a new set of social and legal challenges typical of immigration countries, challenging the conventional self-image of Morocco as primarily an emigration country. The coexistence of emigrants and migrants contributes to the intricate dynamics of mobility and settlement in the region.

Policy Restrictions and the Diversification of Moroccan Emigration

The first dimension of Moroccan emigration, characterized by persistent growth and diversification since the 1960s, coexists with increasing European migration restrictions. Paradoxically, the permanency of settlement in Europe is partially a result of these restrictions, preventing migrants from circulating between origin and destination (De Mas 1990). Despite not substantially curbing migration, policy restrictions influence migration dynamics, making access to opportunities increasingly selective.

Miriam Gutekunst's contribution explores legal obstacles faced by Moroccan marriage migrants, especially since the German ban on recruitment and visa requirements for North African migrants in the mid-1970s. Marriage migration has become a crucial legal pathway for Moroccans to Germany and other destinations. The 2007 introduction of a German language certificate for marriage migrants leads to increased selection based on educational and financial background, reflecting a utilitarian logic in migration management ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ZOC4Wxyg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gutekunst, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Gutekunst, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7577,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/23QPIV5S"],"itemData":{"id":7577,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The Journal of North African Studies","ISSN":"1362-9387","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"The Journal of North African Studies","note":"publisher: Taylor & Francis","page":"540-552","title":"Language as a new instrument of border control: the regulation of marriage migration from Morocco to Germany","volume":"20","author":[{"family":"Gutekunst","given":"Miriam"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gutekunst, 2015).

Gutekunst's analysis reveals that the 2007 policy change has commodified German language acquisition in Morocco, creating a market for language certificates and integrating cultural institutions, like language schools, into Germany's border control system ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DDOPXFFq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Scheel & Gutekunst, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Scheel & Gutekunst, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7578,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/FFETXZBC"],"itemData":{"id":7578,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Gender, Place & Culture","ISSN":"0966-369X","issue":"6","journalAbbreviation":"Gender, Place & Culture","note":"publisher: Taylor & Francis","page":"847-867","title":"Studying marriage migration to Europe from below: informal practices of government, border struggles and multiple entanglements","volume":"26","author":[{"family":"Scheel","given":"Stephan"},{"family":"Gutekunst","given":"Miriam"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Scheel & Gutekunst, 2019). This illustrates the externalization and outsourcing of migration management to private actors. Policy restrictions, rather than reducing immigration, increase selectivity by excluding the poor and uneducated, benefitting the relatively better-off and those with strong network connections in Europe ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wjJOww5L","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Marchal et al., 2020)","plainCitation":"(Marchal et al., 2020)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7572,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/XUHJIZAS"],"itemData":{"id":7572,"type":"paper-conference","event-title":"10th OECDCEPII Conference on Immigration","title":"How Aid Impacts Migration Flows Once Again","author":[{"family":"Marchal","given":"La"},{"family":"Naiditch","given":"Claire"},{"family":"Simsek","given":"Betl"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Marchal et al., 2020).

Policy restrictions also contribute to the geographical diversification of Moroccan emigration. Faced with increasing immigration restrictions, low-skilled migrants have shifted to Southern Europe since the 1980s, while high-skilled migrants increasingly settle in North America. Moroccan migrant communities are now globally distributed, showing higher spatial diversification compared to other North African countries. However, concentrations persist in specific destination countries, such as France, Spain, and Italy, with regional concentrations within these countries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Wv55QJB6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Van Dalen et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Van Dalen et al., 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7576,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/KGI3RT8L"],"itemData":{"id":7576,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Population Studies","ISSN":"0032-4728","issue":"3","journalAbbreviation":"Population Studies","note":"publisher: Taylor & Francis","page":"375-392","title":"The effect of remittances on emigration intentions in Egypt, Morocco, and Turkey","volume":"59","author":[{"family":"Van Dalen","given":"Hendrik P"},{"family":"Groenewold","given":"George"},{"family":"Fokkema","given":"Tineke"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Van Dalen et al., 2005).

Within Morocco, certain regions specialize in migration towards specific destinations. For instance, migration to north Western Europe originates from rural, Berber-speaking areas in the northern Rif, the south-western Sous, and the southern oases. This specialization is also evident at a smaller scale within the Rif, where migrants from specific communities migrate to different destinations, echoing established migration systems' dynamics, resulting in identifiable geographical structures ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OestaKmy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mabogunje, 1970)","plainCitation":"(Mabogunje, 1970)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7579,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/NXKSTP4R"],"itemData":{"id":7579,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Geographical analysis","ISSN":"0016-7363","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Geographical analysis","note":"publisher: Wiley Online Library","page":"1-18","title":"Systems approach to a theory of ruralurban migration","volume":"2","author":[{"family":"Mabogunje","given":"Akin L"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1970"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Mabogunje, 1970).

When contemplating various possibilities for the future of Moroccan immigration, it is crucial to also take into account Morocco's role and position within regional migratory networks. The growing intricacy and diversity of responsibilities undertaken by Morocco indicate that the traditional differentiation between countries of immigration and countries of emigration has significant analytical significance. Previously serving as a primary country for emigration, Morocco is now taking on the role of a bridge connecting African and Euro-Mediterranean migration systems. This shift will lead to uncertain, yet undoubtedly significant changes in migration patterns and trends to and from Morocco in the future.

Literature Review

This part of study analyzes key determinants of emigration, specifically focusing on economic factors grouped into five categories. It explores the "brain drain" phenomenon, highlighting the disproportionate emigration of highly qualified professionals. The study investigates the impact of changing migratory patterns on the labor market, particularly in terms of salary adjustments for individuals remaining in their home countries. The significance of remittance inflows, influenced by the increasing number of international immigrants, is examined. Additionally, the research assesses the impact of migration on the fiscal condition of home country economies, considering the typically young and highly educated profile of migrants. The study delves into the multifaceted consequences of migration on well-being and examines the aftermath of the significant emigration surge post the 2004 EU expansion on the discussed locations, providing insights into both positive and negative outcomes.

Emigration Scenario in Morocco

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RLbVWXda","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berriane et al., 2021)","plainCitation":"(Berriane et al., 2021)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6984,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/45GK4XZM"],"itemData":{"id":6984,"type":"book","publisher":"International Migration Institute network (IMI)","title":"Social transformations and migrations in Morocco","author":[{"family":"Berriane","given":"Mohamed"},{"family":"Haas","given":"Hein","non-dropping-particle":"de"},{"family":"Natter","given":"Katharina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2021"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Berriane et al., 2021) Continuously high levels of emigration can be explained by a growing disjuncture between sluggish and uneven economic development that has mainly benefitted certain regions and economic elites on the one hand and fast socio-cultural change across all social classes and regions on the other. This disjuncture has rapidly increased the youth's aspirations for lifestyles and freedoms that they find difficult to imagine in Morocco. However, at the same time, it reshapes Morocco's internal mobility patterns and attracts growing numbers of immigrants.

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ffWaA6gt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Natter, 2021)","plainCitation":"(Natter, 2021)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6985,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/INIRUXP9"],"itemData":{"id":6985,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"The Journal of North African Studies","ISSN":"1362-9387","issue":"5","journalAbbreviation":"The Journal of North African Studies","note":"publisher: Taylor & Francis","page":"850-874","title":"Crafting a liberal monarchy: Regime consolidation and immigration policy reform in Morocco","volume":"26","author":[{"family":"Natter","given":"Katharina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2021"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Natter, 2021) demonstrates that Moroccan emigration policymaking is intrinsically tied to the monarchy's authoritarian consolidation agenda. However, the analysis reveals that the regime consolidation strategy reflects the power dynamics within and the legitimation strategies of the Moroccan monarchy. Emigration policy research thus offers a privileged vantage point from which to analyze broader political regime dynamics.

This emigration of Africans, particularly Morocco, Kenyans, and Nigerians mind-set, is primarily influenced by an array of factors. Opportunities such as employment, better wages compared to their home countries, a higher standard of living, research training opportunities, and scholarships play a significant role in their decision to remain in the host country ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eqsVqCRl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nkoko, 2022)","plainCitation":"(Nkoko, 2022)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6988,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/YV2FWADS"],"itemData":{"id":6988,"type":"article-journal","title":"Between hope and uncertainty: a no returning journey of African graduates from the United States of America to their home countries.","author":[{"family":"Nkoko","given":"Mosa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2022"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nkoko, 2022). Many of these African graduates initially migrate to acquire a higher level of qualification with the hope of advancing their careers. However, when offered opportunities in their current location that are superior to those available in their home countries, they opt to stay ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"E3F53GUg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Campbell, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Campbell, 2017)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6989,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/GDHEM2MQ"],"itemData":{"id":6989,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International Journal of Educational Development","ISSN":"0738-0593","journalAbbreviation":"International Journal of Educational Development","note":"publisher: Elsevier","page":"56-62","title":"How international scholarship recipients perceive their contributions to the development of their home countries: Findings from a comparative study of Georgia and Moldova","volume":"55","author":[{"family":"Campbell","given":"Anne C"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Campbell, 2017). Despite experiencing challenges such as acculturative stress, including perceived racism, loneliness, and stress, these African graduates report positive experiences in the United States, including being offered employment and higher salaries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oLj9oz3j","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Osikomaiya, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Osikomaiya, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6990,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/TXZ69ZQ4"],"itemData":{"id":6990,"type":"article-journal","title":"Sub-Saharan African students and their experiences in American higher education","author":[{"family":"Osikomaiya","given":"Olujide"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Osikomaiya, 2014). The study emphasizes the negative impacts of brain drain on sending countries, particularly in terms of losing highly skilled professionals needed for development. It suggests that origin countries should implement policies to attract these skilled individuals back or create channels for them to contribute their knowledge and skills even while abroad ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ri3Lv94c","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Nkoko, 2022)","plainCitation":"(Nkoko, 2022)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6988,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/YV2FWADS"],"itemData":{"id":6988,"type":"article-journal","title":"Between hope and uncertainty: a no returning journey of African graduates from the United States of America to their home countries.","author":[{"family":"Nkoko","given":"Mosa"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2022"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Nkoko, 2022).

J.M. Coetzee, quite a senior but still a prolific author of our time, relentlessly pursues solutions to the present problems of multinational, multicultural settings using his texts as a means. This feature of him makes Coetzee a living sage, a dependable source for the readers to see and discuss the so-called problems through his lenses ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5YP3DaEJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Coetzee & Bethlehem, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Coetzee & Bethlehem, 1990)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6992,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/83X4MZN5"],"itemData":{"id":6992,"type":"article-journal","ISSN":"0333-5372","note":"publisher: JSTOR","title":"White writing: on the culture of letters in South Africa","author":[{"family":"Coetzee","given":"John M"},{"family":"Bethlehem","given":"Louise Shabat"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Coetzee & Bethlehem, 1990). Considering his four novels as the starting point of this article aims to compare the problems displayed in his South African years in Age of Iron and Disgrace to his novels produced in his Australian years (between 2005-2007) in The Slow Man and the Diary of a Bad Year ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DlpqL5I7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Uhlmann, 2023)","plainCitation":"(Uhlmann, 2023)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6993,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/Y284BYWR"],"itemData":{"id":6993,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Modern Literature","ISSN":"1529-1464","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Modern Literature","note":"publisher: Indiana University Press","page":"55-67","title":"The Precarious Author, Diary of a Bad Year, Slow Man","volume":"46","author":[{"family":"Uhlmann","given":"Anthony"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2023"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Uhlmann, 2023). The position of the white-elite Westerner will be the main focus in the discussion on changing geographies and decades in the article. However, it will be clarified as well that it is Coetzee's unchanging motto to provide his reader with different points of view through the challenging characters he places next to his chosen protagonist ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"J0BEgZWK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(uc0u350{}EN, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(EN, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6991,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/LKC6ZNBE"],"itemData":{"id":6991,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"nsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Aratrmalar Dergisi","ISSN":"2147-1185","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"nsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Aratrmalar Dergisi","note":"publisher: Mustafa Sleyman ZCAN","page":"564-582","title":"Changing Geographies, Changing Mindsets: JM Coetzees South African and Australian Years","volume":"9","author":[{"family":"EN","given":"Aye Ece DERELOLU"}]}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (EN, n.d.).

The study ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"e51kGy7r","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Oyebamiji, 2021)","plainCitation":"(Oyebamiji, 2021)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6994,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/L5HJLL6Q"],"itemData":{"id":6994,"type":"article-journal","title":"Life across borders: a case study of Nigerian immigrant women in Durban, South Africa.","author":[{"family":"Oyebamiji","given":"Israel Sunday"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2021"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Oyebamiji, 2021) examines Nigerian Immigrant Women in Durban, focusing on contemporary complexities in Africa, including split families due to migration. It reveals that the migration of these women is a new development in grassroots communities, resulting in a change in lifestyle and transformation. Coping mechanisms include entrepreneurship, resilience, financial and psychological support from the immigrants' homeland, and a dedicated culture of remittance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nw8zJwmf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Newland & Patrick, 2004)","plainCitation":"(Newland & Patrick, 2004)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6995,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/9N2EVVDK"],"itemData":{"id":6995,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Migration Policy Institute","journalAbbreviation":"Migration Policy Institute","title":"Beyond remittances: the role of Diaspora in poverty reduction in their countries of origin, a scoping study by the Migration Policy Institute for the Department of International Development","author":[{"family":"Newland","given":"Kathleen"},{"family":"Patrick","given":"Erin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Newland & Patrick, 2004). The study recommends improving the Nigerian-South Africa emigration scene and minimizing immigrants' challenges through the adoption of identified approaches.

The factors behind the emigration of Africans, mainly from Port Shepstone, are fundamentally shaped by economic challenges. Economic hardships, characterized by poverty and unemployment, serve as the primary driver behind the decision to emigrate. Many African migrants, frustrated by the inability of their home country's leadership to address these socio-economic issues, seek better opportunities abroad ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GNix63qk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Adepoju, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Adepoju, 2008)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6997,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/5KQQIRGX"],"itemData":{"id":6997,"type":"book","publisher":"Nordiska Afrikainstitutet","title":"Migration in sub-saharan Africa","author":[{"family":"Adepoju","given":"Aderanti"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Adepoju, 2008). A significant determinant of this emigration mind-set is the allure of economic opportunities in the host country, especially within the informal sector. African migrants are drawn to South Africa in pursuit of these prospects, often establishing businesses such as tuck shops and retail stores ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DkFZXBHa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Charman et al., 2012)","plainCitation":"(Charman et al., 2012)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6998,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/HLWCBTX5"],"itemData":{"id":6998,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa","ISSN":"1726-1368","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa","note":"publisher: Transformation","page":"47-73","title":"From local survivalism to foreign entrepreneurship: the transformation of the spaza sector in Delft, Cape Town","volume":"78","author":[{"family":"Charman","given":"Andrew"},{"family":"Petersen","given":"Leif"},{"family":"Piper","given":"Laurence"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Charman et al., 2012). Rural communities in Africa have become preferred destinations for these individuals due to reduced economic competition and fewer constraints related to municipality by-laws and citizenship requirements ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eXytt87l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dlamini, 2022)","plainCitation":"(Dlamini, 2022)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6996,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/HUTQZUIZ"],"itemData":{"id":6996,"type":"article-journal","title":"Migration and diaspora: a case study probing socio-cultural challenges experienced by African migrants in Port Shepstone, Kwa-Zulu Natal.","author":[{"family":"Dlamini","given":"Mishack Siphosenkosi"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2022"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dlamini, 2022).

However, this emigration mind-set has its challenges. African migrants often face xenophobia and verbal abuse, labeled derogatorily as "Amakwerekwere." ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hTR9rGrD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Crush, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Crush, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6999,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/LFZEGTGG"],"itemData":{"id":6999,"type":"article-journal","note":"publisher: Southern African Migration Programme (SAMP)","title":"Xenophobic violence in South Africa: Denialism, minimalism, realism","author":[{"family":"Crush","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Crush, 2014) They constantly live in fear of being attacked by those who perceive them as threats to economic opportunities. Despite this, they have shown resilience and have invented new economic corridors. Support networks, both in religious spaces and through advocacy efforts, provide psychosocial support for these migrants, helping them cope with the challenges they face ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0V5eKR0J","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Eppsteiner & Hagan, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Eppsteiner & Hagan, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7000,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/4UD34HER"],"itemData":{"id":7000,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Intersections of religion and migration: Issues at the global crossroads","ISSN":"1137586281","journalAbbreviation":"Intersections of religion and migration: Issues at the global crossroads","note":"publisher: Springer","page":"49-70","title":"Religion as psychological, spiritual, and social support in the migration undertaking","author":[{"family":"Eppsteiner","given":"Holly Straut"},{"family":"Hagan","given":"Jacqueline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Eppsteiner & Hagan, 2016). The strength of ties among immigrant groups, regardless of their lineage or places of origin, fosters solidarity and support in various aspects of their lives.

ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0V3t5YEL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Eppsteiner & Hagan, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Eppsteiner & Hagan, 2016)","dontUpdate":true,"noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7000,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/4UD34HER"],"itemData":{"id":7000,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Intersections of religion and migration: Issues at the global crossroads","ISSN":"1137586281","journalAbbreviation":"Intersections of religion and migration: Issues at the global crossroads","note":"publisher: Springer","page":"49-70","title":"Religion as psychological, spiritual, and social support in the migration undertaking","author":[{"family":"Eppsteiner","given":"Holly Straut"},{"family":"Hagan","given":"Jacqueline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Eppsteiner Hagan (2016) considers how migrants of various faiths from West Africa draw upon religion as a resource for psychological, social, and spiritual support during the migration process. Migrants rely on their faiths as they prepare for their departure, during dangerous journeys, upon arrival, and beyond. Religion provides strength and motivation and allows migrants to cope with the dislocations and traumas of contemporary migration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HpoepY8O","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Perkins et al., 2011)","plainCitation":"(Perkins et al., 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7001,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/UQKIW6AT"],"itemData":{"id":7001,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Psychosocial Intervention","DOI":"10.5093/in2011v20n3a1","ISSN":"11320559","issue":"3","journalAbbreviation":"Psychosocial Intervention","language":"en","page":"237-242","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","title":"Psychosocial Studies of Migration and Community: Introduction to the Special Issue","title-short":"Psychosocial Studies of Migration and Community","volume":"20","author":[{"family":"Perkins","given":"Douglas D."},{"family":"Palmer","given":"Neal A."},{"family":"Garca-Ramrez","given":"Manuel"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Perkins et al., 2011). The analysis of religious support focuses on both the personal and the institutional aspects of religion as a resource, demonstrating how migrants from various world regions rely on their respective faiths for spiritual companionship and religious institutions and movements that have emerged to support them along the migrant trail ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SCBIfklX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stewart et al., 2019)","plainCitation":"(Stewart et al., 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":48,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/9HGJVF4J"],"itemData":{"id":48,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is responsible for the most deaths by a single infectious agent worldwide, with 1.6 million deaths in 2017 alone. The World Health Organization, through its End TB strategy, aims to reduce TB deaths by 95% by 2035. In order to reach this goal, a more eective vaccine than the Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine currently in use is needed. Subunit TB vaccines are ideal candidates, because they can be used as booster vaccinations for individuals who have already received BCG and would also be safer for use in immunocompromised individuals in whom BCG is contraindicated. However, subunit TB vaccines will almost certainly require formulation with a potent adjuvant. As the correlates of vaccine protection against TB are currently unclear, there are a variety of adjuvants currently being used in TB vaccines in preclinical and clinical development. This review describes the various adjuvants in use in TB vaccines, their eectiveness, and their proposed mechanisms of action. Notably, adjuvants with less inammatory and reactogenic proles that can be administered safely via mucosal routes, may have the biggest impact on future directions in TB vaccine design.","container-title":"Microorganisms","DOI":"10.3390/microorganisms7080255","ISSN":"2076-2607","issue":"8","journalAbbreviation":"Microorganisms","language":"en","page":"255","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","title":"Adjuvant Strategies for More Effective Tuberculosis Vaccine Immunity","volume":"7","author":[{"literal":"Stewart"},{"literal":"Triccas"},{"literal":"Petrovsky"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,12]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stewart et al., 2019).

Moroccan emigration indeed has deep colonial roots. However, soon after the 1960s, this emigration experienced unprecedented growth and diversification following the high demand for labor in industries and mining in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jNBPd8KD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(De Haas, 2013)","plainCitation":"(De Haas, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7003,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/N7XKWBTZ"],"itemData":{"id":7003,"type":"chapter","container-title":"Globalisation and Migration","page":"77-94","publisher":"Routledge","title":"The myth of invasion: The inconvenient realities of African migration to Europe","author":[{"family":"De Haas","given":"Hein"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (De Haas, 2013). Between 1963 and 1974, a massive movement of emigrants to Europe started, increasing their number from 137.000 in 1968 to 394.000 in 1979, with a growth of 16 percent for every seven years that followed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zesTgxZX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Alaoui, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Alaoui, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7004,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/IJEA5J45"],"itemData":{"id":7004,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Hommes & migrations","ISSN":"1142-852X","journalAbbreviation":"Hommes & migrations","note":"publisher: Cairn","page":"7-15","title":"Peut-on parler de diaspora marocaine?","volume":"1303","author":[{"family":"Alaoui","given":"Rachid"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Alaoui, 2013). This was mainly explained by the fact that Morocco had ratified bilateral agreements, specifically with France in 1963, Germany in 1963, Belgium in 1964, and the Netherlands in 1969, which allowed for the recruitment of qualified and semi-qualified Moroccan workers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NB0MqZ3I","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(De Haas, 2013)","plainCitation":"(De Haas, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7003,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/N7XKWBTZ"],"itemData":{"id":7003,"type":"chapter","container-title":"Globalisation and Migration","page":"77-94","publisher":"Routledge","title":"The myth of invasion: The inconvenient realities of African migration to Europe","author":[{"family":"De Haas","given":"Hein"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (De Haas, 2013). Furthermore, Moroccan immigrants who migrated via informal networks of family and friends were more numerous than those recruited or who migrated through formal networks since visa requirement for Moroccans was not imposed before 1990 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3gulnyw6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ennaji, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Ennaji, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7005,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/IZQUY3KT"],"itemData":{"id":7005,"type":"book","ISBN":"1-137-47649-4","publisher":"Springer","title":"Muslim Moroccan migrants in Europe: Transnational migration in its multiplicity","author":[{"family":"Ennaji","given":"Moha"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ennaji, 2014).

To react to the flow of immigrants and fight clandestine immigration, European countries tightened their measures in regard to family reunification and marriage immigration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tTRY4YY0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ennaji, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Ennaji, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7005,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/IZQUY3KT"],"itemData":{"id":7005,"type":"book","ISBN":"1-137-47649-4","publisher":"Springer","title":"Muslim Moroccan migrants in Europe: Transnational migration in its multiplicity","author":[{"family":"Ennaji","given":"Moha"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ennaji, 2014). The rise of the right-wing political currents and the discourse on how immigration threatens identity paved the way to "measures of acculturation" that require language tests, assessment of values, and depth of ties to the home country ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UiUfOLsQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McAuliffe, 2021)","plainCitation":"(McAuliffe, 2021)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6981,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/37GXLIGC"],"itemData":{"id":6981,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Research handbook on international migration and digital technology","ISSN":"1839100613","journalAbbreviation":"Research handbook on international migration and digital technology","note":"publisher: Edward Elgar Publishing","page":"1-13","title":"International migration and digital technology: An overview","author":[{"family":"McAuliffe","given":"Marie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2021"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (McAuliffe, 2021). The debate shifted from the necessity to regulate the flow of immigrants to the issues of integration and rights. Integration is about acquiring citizenship, which ensures one's economic integration and facilitates access to the workforce ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"81FJ1a5W","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McAuliffe, 2021)","plainCitation":"(McAuliffe, 2021)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":6981,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/37GXLIGC"],"itemData":{"id":6981,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Research handbook on international migration and digital technology","ISSN":"1839100613","journalAbbreviation":"Research handbook on international migration and digital technology","note":"publisher: Edward Elgar Publishing","page":"1-13","title":"International migration and digital technology: An overview","author":[{"family":"McAuliffe","given":"Marie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2021"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (McAuliffe, 2021). Nevertheless, integration is not only economic. It is not only about having access to employment, but it is also socio-cultural, about having access to education respect for one's cultural rights, and finally, integration is also political about having the right to vote but also to participate in politics and public life. A report by the Council of Europe in 2010 entitled Islam, Islamism, and Islam Phobia in Europe recognized that Muslims in Europe are victims of stigmatization, discrimination, and marginalization because of common stereotypes about their culture, religion, and identity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aY0xuGcq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fargues, 2004)","plainCitation":"(Fargues, 2004)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7006,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/QNVZYJGB"],"itemData":{"id":7006,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"International Migration Review","ISSN":"0197-9183","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"International Migration Review","note":"publisher: Wiley Online Library","page":"1348-1371","title":"Arab migration to Europe: Trends and policies 1","volume":"38","author":[{"family":"Fargues","given":"Philippe"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fargues, 2004).

Media has also played an essential role in influencing public opinion. The focus has been placed on immigrant women and the question of the veil ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"EgQ4IG1N","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ouali, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Ouali, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7008,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/R734JRVF"],"itemData":{"id":7008,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Hommes & migrations","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Hommes & migrations","note":"publisher: Perse-Portail des revues scientifiques en SHS","page":"71-82","title":"Les Marocaines en Europe: diversification des profils migratoires","volume":"1242","author":[{"family":"Ouali","given":"Nouria"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ouali, 2003). The veil has been considered a symbol of the interiorization of immigrant women and an expression of a Muslim identity incompatible with the values of the guest country (Ibid). While wearing it gives women an opportunity to express their religious and cultural identity and their autonomy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Z73hCgLQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gaspard & Khosrokhavar, 1995)","plainCitation":"(Gaspard & Khosrokhavar, 1995)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7009,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/Z4N5Q47M"],"itemData":{"id":7009,"type":"book","ISBN":"2-348-01588-9","publisher":"FeniXX","title":"Le foulard et la Rpublique","author":[{"family":"Gaspard","given":"Franoise"},{"family":"Khosrokhavar","given":"Farhad"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gaspard & Khosrokhavar, 1995), Islam is often associated with violence, intolerance, regression, and women's submission ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kkJSl3sK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ouali, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Ouali, 2003)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7008,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/R734JRVF"],"itemData":{"id":7008,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Hommes & migrations","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Hommes & migrations","note":"publisher: Perse-Portail des revues scientifiques en SHS","page":"71-82","title":"Les Marocaines en Europe: diversification des profils migratoires","volume":"1242","author":[{"family":"Ouali","given":"Nouria"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ouali, 2003). In Europe, women wearing the veil are not allowed in school, which sometimes explains their difficult socio-economic conditions, difficulties in accessing the job market, difficulties of integration, and difficulties in accepting the religious dimension of Muslim immigrants (Ibid). However, more women want to engage in political life and intend to influence the debate about women, integration, and the fight against discrimination (ibid).

Moroccan emigration to Europe evolved according to the logic of push and pull factors and according to facilitators and constraints used by receiving countries (Ennaji, 2014, p. 16). Their experiences vary according to their level of education, their socio-economic background, their gender, age, and most importantly, the duration of their stay (Ibid). On the question of whether or not Moroccan immigrants consider returning to their home country, many interviewees in 2008 declared that they would only return after retirement. Others rejected the idea, insisting that Morocco will remain a holiday destination. The development of transportation means has enabled them to frequently travel between their receiving counties and Morocco. In contrast, communication means have enabled them to keep solid social ties with their family and friends back 'home' (Ibid, 45).

There are different 'success stories' within the Moroccan diaspora in Europe, varying from writers and artists to politicians and civil society activists. Tahar ben Jelloun is a famous Moroccan writer in France who won the highly prestigious Prix Goncourt ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mU55B2xq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ennaji, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Ennaji, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7005,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/IZQUY3KT"],"itemData":{"id":7005,"type":"book","ISBN":"1-137-47649-4","publisher":"Springer","title":"Muslim Moroccan migrants in Europe: Transnational migration in its multiplicity","author":[{"family":"Ennaji","given":"Moha"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ennaji, 2014). Issa Ait Belize in Belgium has been recognized as "the most ambitious Francophone Moroccan novelist in Europe" ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kY9HG816","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boumans & de Ruiter, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Boumans & de Ruiter, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7011,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/5HIWLUNG"],"itemData":{"id":7011,"type":"chapter","container-title":"Language contact and language conflict in Arabic","page":"277-303","publisher":"Routledge","title":"Moroccan Arabic in the European diaspora","author":[{"family":"Boumans","given":"Louis"},{"family":"Ruiter","given":"Jan Jaap","non-dropping-particle":"de"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Boumans & de Ruiter, 2013), Ahmed Aboutaleb is the first Muslim mayor of Rotterdam in the Netherlands, Fatiha Saidi is a member of the Senate in Belgium, and others who contribute to various fields and contribute to the development of their host countries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DKJaU253","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dadush, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Dadush, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7010,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/YT653Q97"],"itemData":{"id":7010,"type":"article-journal","ISSN":"2421-9479","note":"publisher: Policy Center for the New South","title":"Diaspora, development and Morocco","author":[{"family":"Dadush","given":"Uri"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dadush, 2015).

Migration movements are part of many research and analyses for different countries and country groups from all around the world. Different methods apply in order to estimate the causes and effects of these movements. Draenovi is analyzing emigration in Croatia, and new EU member states using the gravity model of migration. They conclude that economic factors such as GDP and labor market, noneconomic factors such as capturing the EU accession and corruption in the economy, and demographic characteristics are important determinants of emigration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vkDBB6l8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Drauc0u382{}enoviuc0u263{} et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Draenovi et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7012,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/U6VUCE7D"],"itemData":{"id":7012,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Public Sector Economics","ISSN":"2459-8860","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Public Sector Economics","note":"publisher: Institut za javne financije","page":"415-447","title":"Dynamics and determinants of emigration: the case of Croatia and the experience of new EU member states","volume":"42","author":[{"family":"Draenovi","given":"Ivana"},{"family":"Kunovac","given":"Marina"},{"family":"Pripui","given":"Dominik"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Draenovi et al., 2018).

Research from Sprenger explores the determinants of international migration between 21 developed countries, which are members of the EU and the OECD. The paper examines the impact of traditional economic variables, geographical and demographic factors, and cultural differences on mobility patterns ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0A89co5Z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Sprenger, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Sprenger, 2013)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7013,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/P5EMWHGP"],"itemData":{"id":7013,"type":"report","publisher":"IOS Working Papers","title":"The determinants of international migration in the European Union: an empirical analysis","author":[{"family":"Sprenger","given":"Ekaterina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Sprenger, 2013). Economic factors are significant for migration flows, as are culture and related languages or knowledge of the language of the country of destination. The presence of networks of migrants, physical distance, and free movement of workers has positive effects on migration.

Assessing the economic impacts of migration estimating the overall economic impacts of migration is a topic of intense debate in political and policy circles. Goldin, Cameron, and Balarajan show that there is broad consensus among economists that, for destination countries, immigration is a catalyst for economic growth at an aggregate level and produces net economic benefits. However, the authors also acknowledge that there are ongoing debates on how to measure these effects ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"P8wKu5Kl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Goldin et al., 2011)","plainCitation":"(Goldin et al., 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7014,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/QIGMGKPV"],"itemData":{"id":7014,"type":"chapter","container-title":"Exceptional People","ISBN":"1-4008-3629-8","publisher":"Princeton University Press","title":"Exceptional people: How migration shaped our world and will define our future","author":[{"family":"Goldin","given":"Ian"},{"family":"Cameron","given":"Geoffrey"},{"family":"Balarajan","given":"Meera"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Goldin et al., 2011). The McKinsey Global Institute's report echoes that migrants contributed over 9 percent to the global gross domestic product ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6hhGvx3A","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Woetzel et al., 2016)","plainCitation":"(Woetzel et al., 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7015,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/MD3CVQKX"],"itemData":{"id":7015,"type":"report","publisher":"McKinsey Global Institute","title":"People on the Move: Global migration's impact and opportunity","author":[{"family":"Woetzel","given":"Jonathan"},{"family":"Madgavkar","given":"Anu"},{"family":"Rifai","given":"Khaled"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Woetzel et al., 2016). Recent Trends, Economic Impacts, and Policy Implications, by the International Monetary Fund, concludes that the economic impacts of migration vary across countries and that, while migration brings challenges, it also confers benefits to origin and destination countries ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vdShaxum","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Chen et al., 2020)","plainCitation":"(Chen et al., 2020)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7016,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/XXPdPP1g/items/Y5XYQXKA"],"itemData":{"id":7016,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"IMF Working Papers","issue":"125","journalAbbreviation":"IMF Working Papers","note":"publisher: International Monetary Fund","title":"Tracking the economic impact of COVID-19 and mitigation policies in Europe and the United States","volume":"2020","author":[{"family":"Chen","given":"Sophia"},{"family":"Igan","given":"Deniz O"},{"family":"Pierri","given":"Nicola"},{"family":"Presbitero","given":"Andrea F"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Chen et al., 2020).

Brain Drain

Emigrants from most sending economies tend to have a higher proportion of highly skilled workers compared to the overall population. This means that the skill distribution of emigrants is biassed towards individuals with a strong educational background. For detailed calculations based on DIOC data, refer to Arslan et al. (2015) or Biavaschi et al. (2020). The ramifications of this imbalanced and excessive emigration of highly skilled workers on the economies from which they originate, commonly known as a "brain drain," has been a subject of interest for economists for many years, starting with the works of Grubel and Scott (1966), Johnson (1972), Bhagwati and Hamada (1974), and Bhagwati and Rodriguez (1975). These initial theoretical investigations demonstrated that brain drain leads to a reduction in the accumulated human capital inside a country and decreases fiscal revenues, resulting in potentially significant losses for the economies from which individuals emigrate. According to Lucas (1988), economies with lower levels of human capital also have worse efficiency in using other production resources. Therefore, the departure of highly trained individuals can have negative consequences on both the potential production and the actual growth rate of GDP.

Mountford (1997), Stark et al. (1997), and Beine et al. (2001) provide evidence that the opportunity to emigrate serves as a motivation for individuals to engage in their education, resulting in a "brain gain". Not all individuals who are urged to invest actually emigrate. This implies that the potential for emigration might increase the level of human capital in the domestic economy. The theoretical concepts were subsequently validated by empirical evidence provided by Batista et al. (2012) in the case of Cape Verde, Shrestha (2017) in the context of Nepal, and Dinkelman and Mariotti (2016) in relation to Malawi.

Furthermore, the examination of the global movement of labour frequently highlights the significant significance of repatriation. Approximately 30% of migrants repatriate to their countries of origin during a span of twenty years (Karin, Giovanni, 2009). Upon their return, they bring back the expertise they have gained overseas. These talents enhance the degree of human capital acquired in the nation, hence promoting economic progress. Obtaining work experience in a foreign country is often highly regarded in one's home country and significantly increases the income of those who return after working abroad (Dustmann et al., 2011). Furthermore, repatriated migrants frequently carry with them the wealth they have amassed in more affluent host nations and reinvest it in their place of origin, so stimulating the local economy. Skilled emigration can have positive effects on the source economy through various channels. One such channel is the "brain bank," where the emigration of highly skilled individuals allows the remaining innovators to gain valuable knowledge from abroad. Additionally, emigration increases diasporic network effects, which means that migration facilitates business cooperation between the home and foreign economies. Furthermore, skilled emigration has a positive impact on trade because emigrants are typically more inclined to purchase goods produced in their home country compared to foreign citizens.

Impact of Wages

As per the conventional rule of supply and demand, when there is a decrease in the number of available workers due to emigration, it should result in a rise in wages within the local labour market. Obtaining information on immigrants is challenging, as highlighted by Dustmann et al. (2015), making the empirical study of this idea problematic. Aydemir and Borjas (2007) and Mishra (2007) address this challenge by leveraging the predominant trend of Mexican emigrants relocating to the US. They utilise the US census data to accurately quantify the magnitude and demographics of the Mexican emigrant community. In the subsequent phase, the authors utilise the Mexican censuses to acquire salary data and compute the correlations between the earnings of distinct age-skill cohorts within the Mexican populace and the percentage of emigrants from those corresponding cohorts. Both studies demonstrate a notable and favourable association between the salary levels in Mexico and the rates of emigration. In addition, Aydemir and Borjas (2007) argue that emigration has a substantial impact on the development of the Mexican wage system. It results in an increase in salaries for those in the centre of the pay distribution in Mexico, while causing a decrease at the upper and lower ends. Elsner (2013a) used a comparable empirical approach to examine the phenomenon of emigration from Lithuania. He utilises data from Ireland and the UK to characterise the demographic of Lithuanian emigrants. This technique has inherent limitations, since it fails to include the migrants residing in alternative destination areas. Elsner's research (2013a) validates the favourable influence of population outflows on the average pay level, particularly leading to a more significant increase in earnings among groups of workers with higher emigration rates. Karlstrom (1985) and O'Rourke (1995) discovered a direct correlation between emigration and domestic earnings in Sweden and Ireland, respectively, in previous research.

Additional research examining the impact of emigration on local labour markets includes the work of Hanson (2007), who analyses Mexican microdata from 1990 and 2000. Hanson's findings indicate that the states in Mexico with the highest rates of emigration experienced the most significant wage increases. Elsner (2013b) utilises Lithuanian data to construct a structural model of labour demand. Elsner's research reveals a noteworthy influence of population outflows on the wage distribution between young and old workers. Docquier et al. (2014) employ an aggregate model of labour demand and supply, utilising data on bilateral emigrant stocks for 195 countries in 1990 and 2000. Their study demonstrates that emigration has a detrimental effect on the wages of less educated non-migrants and contributes to increased inequalities within a country.

Income Effects

The adverse effects of significant population outflows can be mitigated by the influx of remittances, which serve as a crucial source of income in several developing nations (Rapoport, Docquier, 2005). Mandelman and Zlate (2012) and di Giovanni et al. (2015) examine the insurance function of remittances and determine that remittances not only increase household income, but also facilitate consumption stability and act as a safeguard against adverse income fluctuations, thereby enhancing overall wellbeing.

Remittances have a crucial role not only for individual households but also for the overall economic indicators of the economies that receive them, as highlighted in the research. Furthermore, a collection of publications specifically examines the influence of remittances on the labour market, emphasising their contribution to the changes in labour availability and pay levels. Several researches indicate that households that receive remittances from overseas restrict their involvement in the employment market (see to Grigorian, Melkonyan, 2011 or Kim, 2007 for further information). Furthermore, remittances might indirectly influence the overall level of wages by affecting the supply of workers. Posso (2012) gave a contrasting perspective on the impact of remittances on employment participation. The author utilises aggregate level data from a panel of 66 emerging economies to demonstrate a positive correlation between remittances and overall labour supply. One potential reason for this outcome is that nearby families observe the advantages of remittances and consequently augment their workforce to offset the expenses associated with migration and assist their relatives in emigrating. Remittances, like other forms of non-market income transfers, have substantial effects on reservation salaries, occupational selection, and investment prospects, particularly those related to education and training (Chami et al., 2018).

Fiscal Effects

Emigration has the capacity to impact the budgetary status of the sending nation by influencing the availability of employment and altering the demographic makeup of society. Emigrants, often in their prime working years and with higher levels of education, generally pay more in taxes than they receive in benefits. Consequently, their departure might place a significant financial strain on the source country's public funds.

One notable example is the "Bhagwati tax" proposed by Bhagwati and Wilson in 1989. There is a severe lack of scientific information about the budgetary consequences of emigration. Johansson (2008) employs a dynamic accounting framework established by Storesletten (2003) to ascertain the connections between the financial burdens of individuals who leave Sweden and their personal attributes. The overall expenses that have been discovered seem to be relatively considerable, yet they vary significantly across workers. The government incurs more expenses when the emigrant is a middle-aged male with a university degree. However, this article fails to include the overall impact of migration on the economy, particularly the implications on government income from taxation due to changes in factor prices. Desai et al. (2009) examine the impact of skilled emigration to the US on India's fiscal accounts. The authors employ Mincer pay regressions to estimate the hypothetical wage series that would have been earned by Indian emigrants had they not chosen to leave the nation. They then include these estimates into the model of the Indian fiscal system. According to their findings, the emigration of Indians to the US in 2000 resulted in India losing net tax payments equivalent to 2.5% of its overall fiscal receipts. Additionally, it was noted that these losses were partly mitigated by a rise in remittances sent to the nation.

Several nations are facing growing population pressures. The increasing lifespan and decreasing birth rates pose significant challenges for pension systems that rely on current workers' payments to cover the benefits of retired individuals. Due to their typically youthful age, migrants are occasionally perceived as a solution to these issues (Han, 2013). The notion that immigration might mitigate the pressures on pension systems is not novel and can be traced back to the work of Razin and Sadka (1998) at the very least. Logically, the emigration of people from a country should have negative consequences and hence pose a danger to the long-term viability of the pension system. As far as we know, this issue is yet relatively unexplored.

Effects on Well-Being and Social Support

Aubry et al. (2016) employ a comprehensive model of the OECD economy that considers the interplay between the labour market, fiscal, and market size impacts of migration. They determine that recent migration has been advantageous for approximately 69% of the non-migrant OECD population, primarily those residing in countries with high immigration rates. The majority of this benefit stems from the market size effect, which entails an expansion in the range of goods accessible to consumers. Di Giovanni et al. (2015) utilise a multi-sector model of the global economy to account for variations in labour productivity, international commerce, remittances, and a diverse workforce across different countries. Based on their calculations, cross-border mobility results in around 5 to 10% welfare benefits for the primary recipient nations. Within the cohort of nations that send migrants, only those who receive substantial remittances see welfare improvements.

Alternative studies assess the welfare implications of migration by contrasting the existing state of migration with a hypothetical future in which the quantity and/or characteristics of migrants are altered. For instance, Klein and Ventura (2009) employ a life-cycle model that considers migration and differences in total factor productivity (TFP) between two regions. They find significant improvements in output, capital accumulation, and welfare when barriers to labour mobility are eliminated. In another study, Marchiori et al. (2013) develop a general equilibrium model of the global economy, which incorporates overlapping generation dynamics. They argue that the prevalent emigration of highly skilled individuals and brain drain can have detrimental effects on the countries from which they originate. Similarly, Biavaschi et al. (2020) utilise a multi-country model that incorporates trade, remittances, and externalities related to human capital. They compare the current state of the world with a hypothetical scenario where migrants are selected neutrally from their home countries, and find that migration benefits most receiving economies. Additionally, they find that sending economies can also benefit if they experience migration externalities such as remittances, brain gain, and the network effect in trade.

The aforementioned research mostly concentrates on the well-being of those who are not migrants. Migrants themselves are the ones who benefit the most (Clemens, 2011). While migrants can experience substantial advantages by relocating to nations with higher wages, some studies emphasise the notable disparities in labour market outcomes between migrants and native workers. The economic discrimination only partially accounts for these discrepancies. Crucially, these consequences arise mostly from the limited capacity to replace immigrants with native workers, as indicated by Dustmann and Preston (2012) and Scharfbillig and Weissler (2019). Ultimately, migrants may vary in their professional background and frequently have challenges with language comprehension. Upon arrival in host countries, migrants progressively gain linguistic proficiency (Lessem, Sanders, 2020), country-specific competencies, and cultural familiarity with local labour markets, all of which contribute to increased wages (Chiswick, 1978). Over time, immigrants see an improvement in their economic condition in the destination country (Bchel, Frick, 2005; Busch et al., 2020). Additionally, the disparity between native workers and foreign-born workers decreases as time goes on (Lehmer, Ludsteck, 2015).

EU Post-Enlargement Emigration

EU legislation ensures the right of workers to migrate without restrictions as one of its four fundamental freedoms. EU nationals have the right to both unrestricted travel and employment in other member states of the EU. In compliance with these laws, the established member states were required to grant access to their labour markets for the newly admitted countries. As a result, the new EU8 nations witnessed significant emigration to wealthier old member states. According to Baas et al. (2010), the population of EU8 residents residing in other countries increased by over 100% from the end of 2003 to the end of 2007. These nations have never previously witnessed such a big emigration.

The topic of post-accession migration has garnered significant attention in the economic discourse. Many studies primarily examine the attributes and outcomes of migration in a single nation (e.g. Elsner, 2013b or Dustmann et al., 2015), while others evaluate migration from the standpoint of the European Union as a collective entity (e.g. Caliendo et al., 2017). The latter category mostly consists of research that is grounded in theoretical frameworks and utilise aggregated migration data. For instance, Baas et al. (2010) employ two distinct general equilibrium models, namely a structural model incorporating a nested production function and wage rigidities, as well as a CGE model. Their objective is to assert that European Union (EU) integration resulted in significant growth in overall output, while having only a moderate effect on the labor markets within the integrated region. Based on the authors' estimates, it is projected that in the short term, wages in the new member states might see a 0.3% increase, while the jobless rate would decrease by 0.4 percentage points. However, in the long term, owing to changes in capital stocks, migration is expected to have a neutral effect on wages and unemployment in these economies.

Typically, country studies are based on real-world observations and primarily examine the effects on the labor market. These studies mainly concentrate on the Baltic States, where the ratio of emigrants to the population is the highest, or Poland, which has the largest number of emigrants.

Poland had the greatest GDP among the countries that joined the European Union in 2004. The accession of Poland to the European Union had a substantial impact on the mobility of its citizens, leading to major emigration from the nation. Figure 1 illustrates the changing number of Polish individuals residing outside of Poland, as estimated by the Polish Central Statistical Office (CSO). The Figure clearly demonstrates a substantial and quick increase in the population of Polish immigrants during the period after Poland's entrance to the European Union. From 2002 to 2008, it had an almost threefold increase. The marginal decrease reported in subsequent years was attributed to cyclical reasons associated with a worldwide financial crisis, rather than a shift in long-term trends. Recently, we have once again noticed a gradual, increasing movement in the number of Polish emigration.

The study conducted by Kaczmarczyk and Oklski (2008) indicates that the emigration patterns from Poland following the EU enlargement differed significantly from earlier waves of migration. An increasing number of migrants were characterised by their youth, high level of education, and residence in small, economically disadvantaged areas with limited job prospects. Barslund et al. (2014), Fihel et al. (2006), and Kaczmarczyk et al. (2010) have reached similar results about the selectivity of Polish post-accession emigration. These publications highlighted that the effect of the growing population outflow on the Polish labour market was relatively limited and did not lead to a substantial decrease in the unemployment rate or an increase in wage pressure5. These findings indicate that the decrease in unemployment rates and the increase in earnings during this era were a result of advantageous business cycle variables and restructuring impacts. Theoretical frameworks were used to evaluate changes in the earnings of individuals who remained in their positions. As an illustration, Budnik (2008) employed a model incorporating search and matching factors as well as migration patterns, and validated the lacklustre impact of emigration on wages.

While the observed effect of emigration on Poland's wages was only marginally favourable, the alterations in the skill distribution of Poland's population caused by emigration might potentially influence the disparities in earnings across various skill groups. Dustmann et al. (2015) validated this assumption by utilising the LFS data to examine individuals who were not present in their households during the survey and had been residing overseas for over three months. Their findings demonstrated that the variation in income levels varied across different skill groups and corresponded to changes in the relative labour supplies.

The importance of remittances in Poland and other Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries has grown since joining the EU. According to World Bank statistics, the ratio of remittances received to GDP in Poland climbed from 0.8% in 2002 to 1.2% in 2018, reaching a peak of 2.5% in 2006. Following the European Union's accession, remittances have played a substantial role in increasing disposable income, especially for those living in small towns and rural regions (Kindler, 2018). Additionally, these remittances have stimulated overall consumption levels (Barbone et al., 2012).

As previously said emigration might have significant effects on fiscal revenue and spending. Nevertheless, Atoyan et al. (2016) contend that emigration's effect on the overall fiscal condition in the CEE area has been minimal and temporary.

The impact of emigration on non-migrants has not been extensively studied, despite its significant economic importance (Zaiceva, 2014). The current empirical studies are deficient in incorporating a general equilibrium aspect, thereby limiting their usefulness in evaluating significant long-term macroeconomic outcomes. These studies have clear limitations in terms of the restricted accessibility and inadequate quality of the emigration data. According to Clemens (2011), the specific numbers are either not gathered or kept private. Conversely, the data that is accessible to the public is typically not comparable across time and between different nations, and is generally released with a considerable delay. The limitations are alleviated by the current general equilibrium models for labour mobility. Nevertheless, these theoretical frameworks often focus on broad generalizations and hence do not address many significant redistribution impacts. Additionally, they provide limited assistance in formulating and directing social and economic policies. Given the aforementioned factors, the field of migration study continues to encounter several obstacles and requires extensive efforts to address the current deficiencies. Promising areas for future research are the hitherto overlooked fiscal consequences of emigration, namely its impact on the long-term viability of pension systems. Furthermore, the theoretical models should incorporate additional aspects of the agents' heterogeneity. This would enable a more comprehensive analysis of the effects on economic disparities and redistribution, as well as the identification of the beneficiaries and those who suffer losses due to population migrations.

Research Gaps

Research on the emigration mind-set among Moroccans reveals several noteworthy gaps. First, there's a need to explore changing aspirations, driven by the disjuncture between economic development and socio-cultural change. The relationship between emigration policies and regime dynamics in countries like Morocco remains underexplored, requiring a detailed analysis of policy use for regime consolidation or impact on broader political dynamics. Comparative studies across diverse African populations are lacking, hindering insights into variations in emigration mind-sets. Psychosocial support and coping strategies, particularly the role of religion, demand further investigation. Additionally, understanding the impact of opportunities on migrants and rural communities, gender-specific factors, and long-term consequences of brain drain is crucial. The intersectionality of race, nationality, and class in emigration mind-set, temporal dynamics, motivations for return migration, and media's role in shaping opinions are areas requiring deeper exploration for a comprehensive understanding. Future research should consider a comparative analysis of emigration patterns in different regions for a broader perspective.

Scope of the Study

The research aims to analyse mindset as a factor in the understanding of Moroccan emigration.

It will focus on the changing aspirations, particularly among the youth, driven by the disjuncture between economic development and socio-cultural change. The complex interplay between emigration policies and regime dynamics in Morocco will be thoroughly analyzed; shedding light on how these policies contribute to regime consolidation and influence broader political dynamics. The research will include a comparative analysis across diverse Moroccan population to uncover variations and commonalities in emigration mind-sets.

The study will also investigate the impact of opportunities on migrants and rural communities, considering gender-specific factors and long-term consequences of brain drain. Furthermore, the research will explore the intersectionality of factors like race, nationality, and class in the emigration mind-set and examine the temporal dynamics of emigration patterns. The motivations and factors influencing return migration will be comprehensively investigated, along with the role of media in shaping public opinion regarding emigration. Lastly, the research will incorporate a comparative analysis of emigration patterns to provide a more comprehensive perspective on the factors influencing emigration.Top of Form

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IZA World of Labor (pp. 140). DOI: 10.15185/izawol.40.

Demography

What is your Age?

Gender?

What is your highest level of education?

What is your main occupation?

Which Moroccan languages do you speak?

Do you come from a rural or urban area?

Freedom to raise their concern

Not at all free Not very freely Somewhat free Completely free Dont know[DNR]

Would you get together with others to raise an issue? 0 1 2 3 4

Would you participated in a demonstration or protest

March? 0 1 2 3 4

How free are you to say what you think? 1 2 3 4 9

How free are you to join any political organization you want? 1 2 3 4 9

How free are you to choose who to vote for without feeling pressured? 1 2 3 4 9

Does competition between political parties lead to violent conflict? 3 2 1 0 9

Are people treated unequally under the law? 3 2 1 0 9

Do officials who commit crimes go unpunished? 3 2 1 0 9

Corruption and Corrupt Practices

In your opinion, over the past year, has the level of corruption in this country increased, decreased, or stayed the same?

Increased a lot 1

Increased somewhat 2

Stayed the same 3

Decreased somewhat 4

Decreased a lot 5

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Can ordinary people report incidents of corruption without fear, or do they risk retaliation or other negative consequences if they speak out?

Can report without fear 0

Risk retaliation or other negative consequences 1

Dont know 9

Corruption in Socio-economic welfare

How easy or difficult was it to obtain the services you needed from teachers or school officials?

Very easy 1

Easy 2

Difficult 3

Very difficult 4

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How often, if ever, did you have to pay a bribe, give a gift, or do a favor for a teacher or school official in order to get the services you needed from the schools?

Never 0

Once or twice 1

A few times 2

Often 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

In general, when dealing with teachers and school officials, how much do you feel that they treat you with respect?

Not at all 0

A little bit 1

Somewhat 2

A lot 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How often, if ever, did you have to pay a bribe, give a gift, or do a favor for a health worker or clinic or hospital staff in order to get the medical care or services you needed?

Never 0

Once or twice 1

A few times 2

Often 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

In general, when dealing with health workers and clinic or hospital staff, how much do you feel that they treat you with respect? [Read out options]

Not at all 0

A little bit 1

Somewhat 2

A lot 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How easy or difficult was it to obtain the document you needed? [Read out options]

Very easy 1

Easy 2

Difficult 3

Very difficult 4

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How often, if ever, did you have to pay a bribe, give a gift, or do a favor for a government official in order to get the document you needed?

Never 0

Once or twice 1

A few times 2

Often 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

In general, when dealing with government officials to obtain documents, how much do you feel that they treat you with respect?

Not at all 0

A little bit 1

Somewhat 2

A lot 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How easy or difficult was it to obtain the assistance you needed? [Read out options]

Very easy 1

Easy 2

Difficult 3

Very difficult 4

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How often, if ever, did you have to pay a bribe, give a gift, or do a favor for a police officer in order to get the assistance you needed? [Read out options]

Never 0

Once or twice 1

A few times 2

Often 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How often, if ever, did you have to pay a bribe, give a gift, or do a favour for a police officer in order to avoid a problem during one of these encounters? [Read out options]

Never 0

Once or twice 1

A few times 2

Often 3

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Governance

In your opinion, what are the most important problems facing this country that government should address?

1st response 2nd response 3rd response

Economics Management of the economy 1 1 1

Wages, incomes, and salaries 2 2 2

Unemployment 3 3 3

Poverty / Destitution 4 4 4

Rates and taxes 5 5 5

Loans / Credit 6 6 6

Food / Agriculture Farming / Agriculture 7 7 7

Agricultural marketing 32 32 32

Food shortage / Famine 8 8 8

Drought 9 9 9

Land 10 10 10

Infrastructure Transportation 11 11 11

Communications 12 12 12

Infrastructure / Roads 13 13 13

Government services Education 14 14 14

Housing 15 15 15

Electricity 16 16 16

Water supply 17 17 17

Orphans / Street children / Homeless children 18 18 18

Services (other) 19 19 19

Health Health 20 20 20

AIDS 21 21 21

COVID-19 34 34 34

Sickness / Disease 22 22 22

Governance Crime and security 23 23 23

Corruption 24 24 24

Political violence 25 25 25

Political instability / Political divisions / Ethnic tensions 26 26 26

Discrimination / Inequality 27 27 27

Gender issues / Womens rights 28 28 28

Democracy / Political rights 29 29 29

War (international) 30 30 30

Civil war 31 31 31

How easy or difficult was it to obtain the medical care or services you needed?

Very easy 1

Easy 2

Difficult 3

Very difficult 4

No contact [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How well or badly would you say the current government is handling the following matters, or havent you heard enough to say? [Probe for strength of opinion]

Very Badly Fairly badly Fairly well Very well Dont know/Havent heard enough [DNR]

Managing the economy? 1 2 3 4 9

Improving the living standards of the poor? 1 2 3 4 9

Creating jobs? 1 2 3 4 9

Keeping prices stable? 1 2 3 4 9

Narrowing gaps between rich and poor? 1 2 3 4 9

Reducing crime? 1 2 3 4 9

Improving basic health services? 1 2 3 4 9

Addressing educational needs? 1 2 3 4 9

Providing water and sanitation services? 1 2 3 4 9

Fighting corruption in government? 1 2 3 4 9

Maintaining roads and bridges? 1 2 3 4 9

Providing a reliable supply of electricity? 1 2 3 4 9

Preventing or resolving violent conflict? 1 2 3 4 9

Promoting equal rights and opportunities for women? 1 2 3 4 9

Protecting and promoting the well-being of vulnerable children? 1 2 3 4 9

Addressing the problem of climate change? 1 2 3 4 9

Reducing pollution and protecting the environment? 1 2 3 4 9

Status of Men, Women,

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree [DNR] Agree Strongly agree Dont know[DNR]

Women and men have equal opportunities to get a job that pays a wage or salary. 1 2 3 4 5 9

Women and men have equal opportunities to own and inherit land. 1 2 3 4 5 9

In your opinion, which of the following issues related to womens rights and equality do you think is the most important for our government and society to address? [Read out options]

Unequal access to education 1

Unequal opportunities or pay in the workplace 2

Too few women in influential positions in government 3

Unequal rights of property ownership and inheritance 4

Gender-based violence 5

Some other issue [Do not read] 6

None of these / There are no issues for government to address [Do not read] 0

Dont know [Do not read] 9

How common do you think it is for men to use violence against women and girls in the home or in the community? [Read out options]

Very common 1

Somewhat common 2

Not very common 3

Not at all common 4

Dont know [Do not read] 9

In your family, do the children belong more to the mothers side, more to the fathers side, or to both sides equally?

Mothers side 1

Fathers side 2

Both sides equally 3

Neither side [Do not read] 0

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Very unlikely Somewhat unlikely Somewhat likely Very likely Dont know[DNR]

How likely or unlikely is it that the case of women will be taken seriously by the police? 1 2 3 4 9

How likely or unlikely is it that She will be criticized, harassed, or shamed by others in the community? 1 2 3 4 9

Resource Distribution among locals

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree [DNR] Agree Strongly agree Dont know[DNR]

Ordinary Moroccans currently have no voice in decisions about natural resource extraction that takes place near their communities. 1 2 3 4 5 9

Local communities currently receive a fair share of the revenue from natural resource extraction that takes place near their communities. 1 2 3 4 5 9

In general, the benefits of resource extraction activities to local communities, such as jobs and revenue, outweigh the costs, such as pollution. 1 2 3 4 5 9

Job/ Income Security

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree [DNR] Agree Strongly agree Dont know[DNR]

Foreign migrants filling job vacancies in Morocco; creating job insecurity for locals 1 2 3 4 5 9

When job opportunities are scarce, employers shouldprioritizeMoroccansoverforeign Immigrants. 1 2 3 4 5 9

To help the economy to grow, Moroccos immigration policies should favor skilled foreigners and foreign investors. 1 2 3 4 5 9

People who are being persecuted for political reasons in their own countries deserve to be accepted and protected in Morocco. 1 2 3 4 5 9

Having more immigrants coming to live in this country creating job insecurity 1 2 3 4 5 9

An immigrant starting a business that employs local people or Moroccans? 1 2 3 4 5 9

In your opinion, how often do employers in Morocco offer jobs based on their connections to those who are looking for employment?

Never 1

Rarely 2

Sometimes 3

Often 4

Always 5

Dont know. [DNR] 9

Very good Fairly good Neither good nor bad Fairly bad Very bad Don't know[DNR]

How would you describe the present economic condition of this country? 5 4 3 2 1 9

How would you describe own present living conditions? 5 4 3 2 1 9

Do you have a job that pays cash income? Is it full time or part time? [If no, ask:] Are you currently looking for a job?

No (not looking) 0

No (looking) 1

Yes, part time 2

Yes, full time 3

Dont know [Do not read] 9

What is your main occupation? What was your last main occupation? Demo

Never had a job 0

Student 1

Housewife / Homemaker 2

Agriculture / Farming / Fishing / Forestry 3

Trader / Hawker / Vendor 4

Retail / Shop 5

Unskilled manual worker (e.g. cleaner, laborer, domestic help, unskilled manufacturing worker) 6

Artisan or skilled manual worker (e.g. trades like electrician, mechanic, machinist, or skilled manufacturing worker) 7

Clerical or secretarial 8

Supervisor / Foreman / Senior manager 9

Security services (police, army, private security) 10

Mid-level professional (e.g. teacher, nurse, mid-level government officer) 11

Upper-level professional (e.g. banker / finance, doctor, lawyer, engineer, accountant, professor, senior-level government officer) 12

Ethnic Discrimination

How often, if ever, are particular ethnic communitys treated unfairly by the government?

Never 0

Sometimes 1

Often 2

Always 3

Not applicable [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Are you from the same ethnic community or cultural group as your mother?

No 0

Yes 1

Mother does not identify with an ethnic or cultural group [Do not read] 2

Not applicable [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Are you from the same ethnic community or cultural group as your father

No 0

Yes 1

Father does not identify with an ethnic or cultural group [Do not read] 2

Not applicable [Do not read] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Do you feel strong ties with other Moroccans?

Strongly disagree 1

Disagree 2

Neither agree nor disagree 3

Agree 4

Strongly agree 5

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Other Moroccans think of you as a Moroccan just like them

Strongly disagree 1

Disagree 2

Neither agree nor disagree 3

Agree 4

Strongly agree 5

Dont know [Do not read] 9

Living conditions/ Quality of life

Which of these things do you personally own? Does anyone else in your household own one?

Yes (personally owns) Someone else in household

owns No one in household owns Dont know[DNR]

Radio? 2 1 0 9

Television? 2 1 0 9

Motor vehicle or motorcycle? 2 1 0 9

Computer? 2 1 0 9

Bank account? 2 1 0 9

Mobile phone? 2 1 0 9

What is your main source of water for household use? [Do not read. Code from response]

Piped water into dwelling 1

Piped water into yard, plot, or compound 2

Public tap or standpipe 3

Tube well or borehole 4

Protected dug well 5

Unprotected dug well 6

Protected spring 7

Unprotected spring 8

Rainwater collection 9

Bottled water 10

Purchased from a cart with a small tank or drum 11

Purchased from a tanker truck 12

Surface water, like a river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, or irrigation channel 13

Other 95

Dont know 99

Please tell me whether each of the following is available inside your house, inside your compound, or outside your compound:

None, no latrine available [DNR] Inside the house Inside the compound Outside the compound Don't know[DNR]

Your main source of water for household use? 1 2 3 9

A toilet or latrine? 0 1 2 3 9

Do you have an electric connection to your home from the National Office of Electricity and Drinking Water?

No 0

Yes 1

Dont know 9

How often is electricity actually available from this connection?

Never 1

Occasionally 2

About half of the time 3

Most of the time 4

All of the time 5

Not applicable [If response to Q92A is 0=No or 9=DK] 7

Dont know [Do not read] 9

What is your highest level of education?

No formal schooling 0

Informal schooling only (including Koranic schooling) 1

Some primary schooling 2

Primary school completed 3

Intermediate school or some secondary school / high school 4

Secondary school / high school completed 5

Post-secondary qualifications other than university, e.g. a diploma or degree from a polytechnic or college 6

Some university 7

University completed 8

Post-graduate 9

Dont know [Do not read] 99

103. In what type of shelter does the respondent live?

Non-traditional / Formal house 1

Traditional house / Hut 2

Temporary structure / Shack 3

Flat in a block of flats 4

Single room in a larger dwelling structure or backyard 5

Hostel in an industrial compound or farming compound 7

Other 8

What was the roof of the respondents home or shelter made of?

Metal, aluminum, tin, or zinc 1

Tiles 2

Shingles 3

Thatch or grass 4

Plastic sheets 5

Asbestos 6

Multiple materials 7

Concrete 8

Some other material 9

Could not tell / Could not see 10