Topic 1 : Genes and inheritance

Topic 1 : Genes and inheritance

In this topic, we will investigate how our development is affected by our genes which we inherit from our parents. We will first look into the concept of DNA.

Genes

DNA forms the building blocks of life, and it has a strong influence on all aspects of our development. Now we will learn about the basics of DNA.

A DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is composed of two long strands of nucleotides. A nucleotide is made up of one of four chemical bases:

Adenine (A)

Cytosine (C)

Guanine (G)

Thymine (T)

These chemicals are combined with each other by sugar and phosphate molecules to form a strand of nucleotides called a polynucleotide.

Image adapted from: National Human Genome Research Institute

The two polynucleotides are linked to each other by hydrogen bonds between:

Adenine and Thymine, and

Cytosine and Guanine.

A DNA molecule is composed of these twopolynucleotides. The two strands form a spiral staircase-like double helix, with the sugar-phosphate molecules forming the outer backbone of the DNA molecule; and the base pairs A, C, T and G forming the centre of the helix. A visual representation can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 2.1.3. DNA Double Helix.Image adapted from: National Human Genome Research Institute

There are about 1.8 metres of DNA in each cell nucleus of the human body. The DNA is tightly wrapped around a protein called a histone to make up a structure called achromosome. Most cell nuclei of the human body, there are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), and they provide information to the cells to make essential substances for our development such as protein.

Within the DNA making up the chromosomes, there are sequences of polynucleotides representing information about our development. These sequences, called genes, provide instructions on the production of proteins. A gene contains sequences which determine the type of protein to be made and sequences which determine the time and location for the protein production. For example, AGC and ACC produce the amino acids serine and threonine, respectively, while ATG and TAATAA determine when to start and stop the protein production from these amino acids.

It is worth noting that a protein or amino acid can be coded by more than one type of sequence. For example, both sequences ACC and ACA code for the amino acid threonine. Consequently, there are several variations of genes, called alleles, which produce the same type of protein. For example, a gene can be coded to determine the blood type of the individual, and the alleles can be considered as blood type A, blood type B and blood type O.

Despite these significant variations, most genes are consistent within each human cell. For example, the sequences ACC and ACA will always represent threonine production. This led to researchers attempting to determine the genes (sequences) in all 46 chromosomes. This project, known as the Human Genome Project, found 20000 to 25000 genes, representing 3 percent of the DNA in all 46 chromosomes. The rest of the DNA is called regulatory DNA and is involved in the regulation of the protein-producing genes, such as which protein-producing genes should be active in a cell at any one time.

In addition to containing information about protein production, genes also play an essential role in our development and our uniqueness as individuals. Interestingly, only 0.1% of our genes contribute to the uniqueness in humans, with the remaining 99.9% of the genes being identical between all people around the world.

Passing of genes across generations

Although most of the human genome is the same, you might notice that you are more similar in appearance to your parents and siblings compared to others. Similarly, your children may be similar in appearance to yourself compared to other children. This similarity is because your chromosomes are formed from that of your parents, and your childs chromosomes are partly formed from you.

A human cell is a combination of two special cells from their parents, the sperm and the ova. Unlike most cells, which have 46 chromosomes, the sperm and the ova each have only 23 chromosomes. This is because the two cells are formed through a process called meiosis.

During meiosis, the individual reproductive cells in each parent, splits into two cells each containing 46 chromosome (23 homologue pairs). These cells then split again to form four cells, each containing 23unpairedchromosomes. During the first split, the 23 homologue pairs line up next to one another. At this stage of the division, parts of each neighbouring chromosome may be inserted into its pair in an exchange process calledcrossing over. For females, one of the resulting four 23 chromosome cells becomes the ovum, while for males, all four 23 chromosome cells become sperm.

The human life begins with the union of the sperm and the ovum to form a new cell called a zygote. This process is known asconception. This single-celled zygote then undergoes the process mitosis, in which it duplicates itself into two identical cells with the same 46 chromosomes. Through mitosis, the single-celled zygote becomes a blastocyst and eventually a human embryo.

Inheritance

From the above information, we can see that the conception process determines which chromosomes the child willinheritfrom the parent. For example, the 23rd pair of chromosomes which the child inherits, known as the sex chromosomes, determines the gender of the child. Males have a long X chromosome and a shorter Y chromosome. In contrast, females have two X chromosomes.

The inherited chromosomes contain gene pairs inherited from both the mother and the father. The childs characteristics are influenced by these gene pairs, which collectively are calledgenotype. For every gene pair, one gene has more influence over the childs outward observable trait (calledphenotype) than the other. The gene (or its variants) which has more influence is called thedominant gene allele while the gene which has less influence is called therecessive gene allele.

To see how dominant and recessive alleles influence the childs characteristics, consider the childs blood type, which is inherited from their biological parents. A dominant gene allele can be regarded as the A or B blood type, and a recessive gene allele can be considered as O blood type. The figure below shows how the child can have the phenotype A, B or O blood type depending on which gene allele they inherit from the parent. Individuals whose chromosomes contain one dominant and one recessive gene allele are called carriers. In the case when blood type A is paired with blood type B, both gene allelesco-dominateand the phenotype blood type is AB.

In some cases, thedominant gene alleledoes not entirely dominate the recessive gene allele. This case is calledincomplete dominance, and the child will have a blend of the parents trait. An example of this is skin colour, in which the child can have a blended skin colour of the parents.

Although some human traits are influenced by a single pair of gene inheritance, most of the traits arepolygenic traitsthat are influenced by the inheritance of multiple pairs of genes. Current research is being undertaken to determine the genes which contribute to various polygenic traits. You can see a case study below showing how researchers determine which genes contribute to a particular trait.

Genes and individual characteristic traits

Both single pairs of gene inheritance and polygenic traits contribute to the individual characteristic. Some traits are more influenced by genes than others. For example, there is about an 86% similarity in height between twins, who share the same genes, even when they are raised in different families. Other traits, such as religiosity, are less influenced by genes, with only 50% similarity between twins who are raised in different families.

For most psychological traits such as general intelligence and personality, genes are found to account for half the variation in an individual. The other half of individual differences are due to environmental factors such as the individuals family, friends and events which occur in the individuals life. Investigations of developmental science, therefore, require consideration of both genes and the environment. We will consider how these investigations are carried out in the next topic.

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Topic 2 : Investigations in how genes and environment interact

Introduction

In the Previous topic, we examined the way that sequences in the DNA called genes can influence human traits such as their blood type. However, our individual traits are influenced by not only our genes but also by our surrounding environment. In this topic, we will examine how our genes, which we inherit from our parents, interact with our environment throughout development.

Research into how genes and environment influence our development

Investigations into how genes and environment influence human individuals is calledbehavioural genetics. Methods to carry out such studies require the control for both the degree of gene differences and the degree of environmental variations.

Control of gene differences requires a spectrum of participants ranging from those who share different genes to those who share the same gene. Participants who share the same gene are generally challenging to find because any parents 46 chromosome pairs can result in 64 trillion possible chromosome combinations. Together with the formation of new chromosomes as a result of meiosis, this means that it is unlikely to find two people with the same gene sequences.

One notable exception to this is identical/monozygotic twins. Identical twins are a result of one zygote dividing to form two genetically identical individuals. Many studies on developmental psychology involve identical twins as participants. They will generally contrast the identical twin groups with other participant groups on the spectrum such as:

Fraternal Twins:Twins who were born as a result of the mother releasing two ova at approximately the same time and each ovum being fertilised by a different sperm.

Biological Siblings:Brothers and sisters with the same parents.

Half-Siblings:Brothers and sisters with one same parent.

Unrelated Step-Siblings:Children who are unrelated genetically, but share the same household environment.

Control of environmental differences requires a spectrum of participants ranging from those who share identical events throughout their lives to those who share totally different circumstances throughout their lives. Both of these extremes are impossible to find because all individuals possess shared environmental influences and non-shared environmental influences. Despite this, individuals who are raised in the same family environment possess more shared environmental influences compared to individuals who are raised apart. These shared environmental influences include common parenting style, or exposure to the same toys, schools and neighbourhoods. Similarly, individuals who are raised apart possess more non-shared environmental influences compared to individuals who are raised together. These include different parenting styles, different schools, and being affected by different events.

Behavioural genetics research commonly compares participant groups who are raised in the same family environment to those who are raised apart in different family environments.

Estimating contributions from both genes and environment to development

To carry out an investigation on a particular trait, researchers use statistical measures such as gene-environment concordance and gene-environment correlations (see below for a more formal definition).

There are three different types of gene-environment correlations: passive gene-environment correlations, evocative gene-environment correlations and active gene-environment correlations.

Passive Gene-Environment Correlations

Encompass situations where the individual grows up in the home of their biological parents. This usually has a positive correlation between genes and the environment. For example, children can inherit both sociable genes from their parents and a sociable environment as a result of the parents behaviour.

Evocative Gene-Environment Correlations

Encompass situations where the childs gene determines the environment by affecting the reactions of other people around them. For example, a sociable child may be chosen by other children and will have more opportunity to grow up in a more social environment compared to a shy child.

Active Gene-Environment Correlations

Capture situations when the child seeks environments which are complementary to their phenotypes. For example, a sociable child will be more likely to build a socially stimulating environment by seeking friends, joining organisations and going to parties. This is compared to a shy child who will be more likely to develop solitary interests, fewer friends and seek avoidance from large groups.

In addition to gene-environment correlations, there is also gene-environment interactions. A gene-environment interaction suggests that a genes effect on a particular trait will depend on the amount of environmental influence and vice-versa. For example, the figure below shows how the probability of high-risk gene carriers exhibiting the major depression phenotype is dependent on the number of stressful events. For a low number of stressful events, the high-risk gene carriers have a similar probability of having a major depressive episode compared to those with protective gene carriers. As the number of stressful events increases, the high-risk gene carriers have an increased probability of exhibiting major depression phenotype compared to protective gene carriers.

Concordance and correlation

Concordance rate is used when the trait of interest is all or none (i.e. either the participant has Huntingtons disease, or the participant does not have Huntingtons disease). Concordance rate in gene-environment investigations is defined as the percentage of participant pairs who have similar genes or environment experiences share the same trait. For example, to assess whether homosexuality is genetically influenced, one investigation recruited male and female homosexual identical and fraternal twins (Bailey et al., 2000).

The findings of this research suggested that 20% of the identical male twins and 24% of the female identical twins are homosexual. The concordance rate is therefore 20% and 24% respectively. For fraternal twins, the study found a concordance rate of 0% for males and 11% for female twins. This finding suggests that genes have some influence on sexual orientation. However, this effect is not large since most of the recruited identical twins (80% for males and 76% for female) have a different sexual orientation to their homosexual sibling. The differences are due to non-hereditary environmental factors.

The correlation coefficient is used when the trait of interest is on a continuous scale (i.e. height, weight, IQ scores). The correlation coefficient for genes and environment explains how much of the changes in a trait are explained by genes and how much of the changes are explained by the environment. For example, researchers have assessed the emotionality of identical and fraternal twins when they are either raised together or raised apart (Plomin et al., 1988). The correlations show that 37% of identical twin pairs have similar emotion when raised together and 33% when raised apart. This contrasts with similar emotion for only 17% of fraternal twin pairs who are raised together and 9% when raised apart.

The higher percentage of identical twins (35%) having similar emotions compared to fraternal twins (13%), suggests a strong genetic heredity for emotionality. Nevertheless, it is still worth noting that genes can only suggest about 35% of variations in emotionality, with more than 50% of the variations in emotionality due to factors other than genes and shared environmental influences (see below findings in Table 2.2.1.).

Correlations of heritability of angry emotionality

Topic 3 : Gene and environment risks, hazards and solutions

Introduction

In this topic, we will investigate how our development can be affected by both genes and environment prior to being born. We will start off by looking at our gene inheritance and abnormalities related to it.

Genetic hazards, risks and solutions

One of the potential risks for our development is abnormalities in our DNA. Four situations during which abnormalities can occur are:

gene inheritance,

gene mutation,

copy number variations, and

chromosomal abnormalities.

Genetic inheritance and gene mutation

Both involve changes in genes or the chromosomes that carry the genes. This results in abnormal DNA sequences that have the possibility to result in a genetic disorder or disease. For the case of gene inheritance, the genetic disorder is inherited from the parent. For the case of gene mutation, there is a spontaneous change in the structure of one or more genes that produces a new characteristic or trait during either meiosis or mitosis.

An example of gene inheritance is Huntingtons disease which is caused by a genetic defect on chromosome 4. This disease is observed in individuals typically after middle age and causes motor disturbances such as slurred speech, grimaces and jerky movement, increased moodiness and loss of cognitive abilities. Patients with Huntingtons disease generally have a parent who also suffers from this disease. This is because Huntingtons disease is a dominant gene allele. On the other hand, parents who have Huntingtons disease phenotype can still have children free from Huntingtons disease.

An example of a genetic disorder arising from a disease-causing gene mutation is haemophilia. Haemophilia is a defect in the bloods ability to clot and is caused by a recessive gene allele. The probability that a disease-causing gene mutation will occur is affected by environmental hazards such as radiation and toxic substances. It is also affected by the fathers age because more errors could be made during sperm production.

Copy Number Variations

These are instances when an individual has too many or few copies of a gene. Copy number variations can occur either from gene inheritance or gene mutation. Examples of disorders affected by copy number variations are autism, schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Like copy number variations, chromosomal abnormalities occur when a child receives too many or too few chromosomes at conception. Chromosomal abnormalities can be inherited or be due to gene mutation. An example of inherited chromosomal abnormality is the fragile X syndrome, where one arm of the X chromosome is barely connected to the rest of the X chromosome (Hagerman, 2011). An example of mutated chromosomal abnormality is down syndrome. This occurs when there are errors in chromosome divisions during either meiosis or mitosis, resulting in the child having an extra 21st chromosome.

Diagnosing and treating abnormalities

In order to combat the appearances of these rare abnormalities, several genetic diagnosis and treatment plans have been developed.

One type of plan is genetic counselling, which argues for early detection of the disorder, which can then lead to early treatments or interventions such as abortion of the foetus. There are five types of diagnostic methods that can provide essential information to be used during genetic counselling sessions. They are:

Ultrasounduses sound waves on the abdomen to create a visual image of the foetus on the screen. Ultrasound can determine the number of foetuses in the uterus, their sex, and any physical abnormalities.

Amniocentesisinvolves inserting a needle into the pregnant womans abdomen to extract a sample of amniotic fluid of the foetal cells. This enables detection of chromosome abnormalities such as down syndrome. This method is not considered safe until the 15thweek of pregnancy.

Chorionic Villus Samplingis similar to amniocentesis in that it extracts genetic materials from the foetus. It involves inserting a catheter into the mothers cervix to a membrane that surrounds the foetus. It is slightly risker than amniocentesis but can be done as early as the 10thweek of pregnancy.

Maternal Blood Samplingis another means to detect chromosome abnormalities and genetic disease such as down syndrome with high accuracy at around 9 or 10 weeks after conception. The advantage of this method is that it is non-invasive and is only slightly less accurate than Amniocentesis or Chorionic Villus Sampling (Winerman, 2013).

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosisinvolves fertilising a females ovum with a males sperm in the laboratory using in vitro fertilisation (IVF) techniques. This involves removing several ova from the womans ovary and manually combining them with the males sperm to form a zygote in a laboratory dish. DNA tests are then carried out on the first few cells that result from the zygotes. The zygotes that do not show chromosome or gene abnormalities are then implanted back to the females uterus and hoping that one of the zygotes will implant on the uterus wall. This option decreases the chances of having a child with a genetic disorder but is very costly.

Once abnormalities are detected, the parents have the option to abort the foetus. They can also choose to alter the foetus genome through gene therapy. Gene therapy has been experimentally tested on genetic disorders such as haemophilia or cystic fibrosis by infusing unaffected genes to the patients. Although such therapy is still subject to research, there have been successes in treating patients with these genetic disorders.

Another variation of gene therapy is to edit the foetus genome itself using techniques such as gene editing through either IVF, drugs or dietary treatments (see PKU diet approach in your textbook pg. 109-110). Nevertheless, such techniques have raised many ethical issues and concerns about unintended consequences (Achenbach, 2015), especially if those diseases we consider to be single-gene-pair inheritances are, in fact, polygenetic traits.

Ethical issues

If you would like to learn more about the ethical issues which have been raised in relation to gene therapy, follow this link to an article that discusses the fallout of a scientist editing the genes of his babies:

Non-Genetic hazards

We have so far investigated possible gene abnormalities arising from either heredity or mutations. However, difficulties arise not only from gene abnormalities but also from the environment.

Teratogens

Environmental agents that harm a developing foetus are called teratogens. Teratogens can influence development from conception to the end of life.

Teratogens can include drugs such as alcohol, tobacco and even over-the-counter pain-relieving products such as aspirin and ibuprofen. For example, paternal smoking has been shown to affect the childs intelligence, increased ADHD symptoms (Langley et al., 2012), low birth weight, and antisocial behaviour (Rice & Thapar, 2009). Teratogens can also include maternal diseases such as AIDS, herpes, chickenpox, diabetes and influenza. Finally, a mothers exposure to environmental factors such as radiation and pesticides can also significantly affect the child.

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Non-Genetic hazards

We have so far investigated possible gene abnormalities arising from either heredity or mutations. However, difficulties arise not only from gene abnormalities but also from the environment.

Maternal Characteristics

In addition to teratogens, the mothers characteristics affect foetal health. Age, nutrition, ethnicity, emotional health and the paternal genes all contribute to genetic abnormalities in the foetus.

Nutrition

Provided to the mother during pregnancy is essential for foetal outcomes. Mothers who are underweight during pregnancy have a high chance of delivering premature babies. Obese pregnant mothers also impact foetal growth, have higher risk of pregnancy loss and caesarean delivery, and increased likelihood of childhood obesity.

Mothers who lack specific vitamins can also impact the development of their child. For example, the vitamin folate is known for maintaining regular protein production. Mothers who lack folate could give birth to children who have spina bifida, in which the spinal cord is not fully encased by its protective covering. This condition can lead to neurological problems such as anencephaly, a lethal defect in which a main portion of the brain fails to develop (Liptak, 2013).

For this reason, many healthcare professionals recommend pregnant women take prenatal vitamin supplements to ensure adequate levels of vitamins and minerals before and during pregnancy (Hamilton et al., 2009; Morton et al., 2013).

Ethnicity

One of the most notable effects of ethnicity is based on comparisons between infants born to Indigenous and non-Indigenous women. For example, Aboriginal and Torres Islander infants are twice as likely as non-Indigenous Australian infants to have low birth weight, to be born preterm and to die before or soon after they are born.

One reason for the early death is that, compared to non-Indigenous women, Indigenous women receive less antenatal care during and after their pregnancy (AIHW, 2016). The lack of antenatal care could be attributed to geographical location (i.e., living in remote locations), and having a social and economic disadvantage (Eades et al., 2008). Another reason could be due to cultural differences, with Indigenous women finding current antenatal care inappropriate for their culture (Rumbold & Cunningham, 2008).

For students who are interested in reading more about ethnicity and neonatal health, follow the links for optional readings below:

Emotional Health and Stress

Womens mental health is important for foetal development. Anxiety (e.g. about the health and wellbeing of their baby) and depression have been shown to affect a childs behaviour after birth. For example, women who experience pregnancy-specific anxiety would have high stress levels during their pregnancy (Dunkel et al., 2012). When the mother is stressed, the foetus immediate response is faster and irregular heartbeat. Combined with slower prenatal growth, this leads to lower birth weight, premature birth or other birth complications (Bussieres et al., 2015). There have also been reports of gene-stress interactions relating to intelligence, and behavioural problems, during childhood development (DSouza et al., 2016; Thompson et al., 2012). For women who experience depression during pregnancy, the child has been observed to have low birth weight, increased temperamental issues and delays in motor movement development (Davis et al.,2007; Dunkel et al., 2012).

The Childs Paternal Genes

Finally, the age of the childs biological father can influence a childs development. Investigations showed an increased risk of miscarriage and infant mortality when the biological father is 40 or 50 years old (Belloc et al., 2008; Sadler 2015).In addition, as the biological fathers age increases, the risk of genetic mutation associated with autism (ORoak et al., 2012) and schizophrenia also increases (Frans et al., 2011). Indeed, conditions such as down syndrome, schizophrenia and autism have all been associated with fathers over the age of 50 (Crystal et al., 2001; Fisch et al., 2003; Frans et al., 2011; Rucker & McGuffin, 2012).

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The characteristics of a child is the result of interaction between genes and teratogens. For example, the interaction between a mothers genes and smoking contributes to a childs antisocial behaviour (Rice & Thapar, 2009). In a study by Rice and Thapar (2009), smoking contributed to antisocial behaviour in children who were born from biological mothers but not those with surrogate mothers.

Environmental influences during pregnancy can have an epigenetic effect on growth and later development (Beydoune & Saftlas, 2008). Epigenetic effects occur when environmental factors influence an individuals development by turning genes off or on (Boyce & Kobor, 2015; Champagne, 2013; Moore, 2015). In these cases, the gene is not altered, but the method in which the gene information is used to produce proteins is altered. For example, childhood depression is linked to an interaction between genes and parental stress (DSouza et al., 2016). Parents with stress are likely to have children who are underweight. If these underweight children also have the DAT1 allele (a known allele related to depression), they will likely have elevated depression levels at a later agecompared to other DAT1 carrier children born with normal weight.

Topic 4 : Gene and environment during different stages of pregnancy

Introduction

Having seen the possible influences on the foetus from both the genes and the environment, we will now learn about the complications which arise at each stage of the birth process.

Before conception

The first non-genetic hazard that can occur is infertility. Over 48.5 million couples worldwide are unable to have a child after five years of trying (Mascarenhas et al., 2012). Additionally, 10 percent of planned pregnancies required treatment to assist with conception. Such infertility arises from many different environmental influences such as maternal age, male and female obesity, smoking, alcohol and sexually transmitted infections.

Many couples turn to assistive reproductive technology (ART) to solve the infertility problem. ART techniques start with prescription drugs to stimulate the womans ovaries to ripen and release several ova. If this is unsuccessful, some may proceed with artificial insemination, which involves injecting sperm into the womans uterus. Another method is to use IVF, in which case several ova are removed from the womans ovary, manually combined with the sperm before injecting it back to the womans uterus. ART treatments result in around 24% of women becoming pregnant and 18% giving birth.

Mental health studies of couples who used ART found that after ten years, those who were successful in having children had higher self-esteem than those who were unsuccessful (Wischmann et al., 2012). All couples reported similar levels of satisfaction with their lives in general. After 20 years, some women who had undergone IVF treatment and were unsuccessful reported a higher rate of depression (Vikstrom et al., 2015) due to not being able to experience grandparenthood. The number of women in this group is relatively minor, and overall there were no significant negative outcomes for most women or couples (Gameiro et al., 2014).

Prenatal period

Both genes and environment can have a strong influence on the child during the prenatal period. One important influence during the prenatal period is epigenetic effects, which can alter the usual genetic unfolding of the embryo or foetus (Sandman et al., 2012), leading to changes in the persons physiology and cognition. The changes, in turn, result in the individual being more susceptible to health and mental health problems later in life. Moreover, since epigenetic effect influences protein production, the mothers environment can also influence the childs reproductive cells. Therefore, a pregnant womans health, diet and environment affects not only her child but potentially also her (potential) future grandchild. Examples of epigenetic effect during the prenatal period include obesity, heart disease and schizophrenia (Kirkbride et al., 2012).

The prenatal period can be divided into three stages: the germinal period, the embryonic period and the foetal period, with each stage carrying its own risks.

The germinal period lasts approximately two weeks, during which fertilisation occurs, and the resulting zygote divides through mitosis to form a morula. The morula travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus where it eventually forms a 150-cell hollow ball called a blastocyst. The blastocyst then embeds in the uterus wall.

During the germinal period, only approximately half of all fertilised ova are successfully implanted in the uterus. Many are lost during the germinal period because of genetic defects. Hazards can occur as early as the morula being unable to travel down the fallopian tube, in which case, a dangerous ectopic pregnancy can occur. Such pregnancy is required to be treated either through drugs, or surgery if detected late. Additionally, even if the blastocyst does manage to implant on the uterus wall, it may not survive. A visual representation of the pathway is seen in the figure below.

Perinatal period and the childbirth process

The perinatal period is the environment surrounding birth, including delivery practices, and the social and physical environment during and after birth.

Childbirth is a three-stage process.

Childbirth process

Stage 1

The first stage is the labour. In this stage, the mother experiences regular contractions of the uterus and ends with her cervix fully dilated to enable the foetus head to pass through.

Stage 2

The second stage of the labour begins with the foetus head passing through the cervix to the baby emerging from the mothers body.

Stage 3

The last stage is the delivery of the placenta, which is formed during the embryonic period.

Possible environmental hazards during the perinatal period include baby anoxia, in which there is an oxygen shortage for the baby, and long labour processes. Anoxia for the baby usually occurs due to reasons such as tangled umbilical cord, or when the foetus emerges feet first instead of head first during the delivery. Severe anoxia can cause poor reflexes and heart rate irregularities, leading to memory impairment or cerebral palsy (Fehlings et al., 2007). Long labour process can result in poor wellbeing for the baby and the mother. Long labour process could be linked to the incorrect position of the baby or weak contractions of the uterus.

Solving anoxia or long labour process complications include labour assistance, which can be in the form of vacuum extraction (suction of the foetus), or caesarean section, which is a surgical procedure to remove the foetus from the mother. The latter carries its own risks, such as bleeding complications for the mother and respiratory distress for the baby (Karlstrom et al., 2013).

In addition to health complications, the perinatal period can also involve mental health complications for the mother. A mothers experience is generally positive to the birth delivery despite experiencing severe pain, anxiety and panic during the perinatal period (Waldenstrom et al., 1996). However, the experience of childbearing is strongly affected by her expectations about the birth process and the social and cultural support she receives from her environment (Haines et al., 2012). Women tend to have more negative feelings towards their pregnancy when they undergo long labour or when their baby seems to be struggling after birth (Ulfsdottir et al., 2014).

Neonatal environment

The neonatal environment encompasses the events surrounding the first month after birth. During this time, the baby requires nutrients. The baby will typically obtain them from the mother through breastfeeding. This method leads to fewer ear infections, fewer respiratory tract problems, stronger lung function, better mental health and better cognitive advances (Yilmaz et al., 2009; Quigley et al.,2012). Breastfeeding also lowers the risk of ovarian and breast cancers for the mother (Ip et al., 2007); and lowers the risk of depression for the mother (Dennis & McQueen, 2009; Oddy et al., 2009).

Unfortunately, despite the benefits of breastfeeding, only 2% of infants in Australia breastfeed for more than six months (AIHW, 2011). Reasons include milk supply problems, discomfort, concerns about the infant not obtaining adequate nutrition and low socioeconomic backgrounds for young mothers (Ahluwalia et al., 2006; Brown, 2014; Thulier & Mercer, 2009).

For the infant, hazards during neonatal environment can come from complications during the prenatal and perinatal period. A series of screening tests are conducted to ensure early detection of potential problems.

The Apgar test (see Table 2.4.1) is one such example of a screening measure which is used to assess heart rate, respiration, colour, muscle tone and reflexes. Babies whose health are considered to be at risk following these tests will be given medical interventions to increase chances of survival.

Hazards in the neonatal environment apply not only to the infant but also to the mother. Mothers can experience peripartum depression, which is clinical depression diagnosed between the beginning of pregnancy through to four weeks after birth (Sharma & Mazmanian, 2014). Most women with perinatal depression are likely to have prior history of depression, or other significant life stressors such as, unemployment and serious family conflict (Honey, 2003; Webster et al., 2011). Peripartum depression can result in less secure infant attachment, more negative interactions with parents, behaviour problems, violence and depression during adolescence (Halligan et al., 2004; Hay et al., 2003).

Partners can also experience elevated depressive symptoms during the perinatal and postnatal period (Underwood et al., 2017). This elevation is often related to stress, poor health and social-economic factors (e.g., finances).

Resilience

In addition to external methods of avoiding teratogens, our body can develop resistance mechanisms as well. The effects of teratogen can be mitigated, depending on the quality of the prenatal, perinatal, neonatal and postnatal (after the first few months) environments. For example, children exposed to prenatal cocaine displayed fewer language issues when raised by foster parents compared to biological mothers (Lewis et al., 2011). Reasons for this resilience relates to the presence of supportive postnatal environment (Werner 1989-2001). Thus, this shows how later development environment can mediate negativity encountered during early development.

Topic 5 : The building blocks of lifelong health

Introduction

The human physical development is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Genes that we inherit from our parents provide the genetic blueprint for development, while the environment provides an external influence that can change our developmental trajectory from the blueprint (e.g., becoming overweight, when we have the skinny gene). In this topic, we will discuss how genes provide the basis of how we grow, and the influence the environment has in steering our development.

Brain and nervous system

The central nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system that extends into all parts of the body. The nervous systems basic unit is a neuron (see Fig. 2.5.1 below), and it receives signals (through the dendrite) from other neurons. The axon of a neuron transmits signals to other neurons or muscle cells, and makes connections with other neurons through synapses. By releasing neurotransmitters stored at the ends of its axons, one neuron can either stimulate or inhibit the action of another neuron. A fatty sheath called myelin covers the axons of many neurons, and acts as an insulation to increase the transmission speed of neural impulses. The brain and nervous system are essential as they make physical and mental achievements possible for humans.

Life span model of health

The WHO definition of health has been a topic of debate, due to the lack of cultural sensitivity (Reid et al., 2016). The life span model of health is an inclusive model that provides a richer view of health and its determinants, including sociocultural considerations. There are four aspects to the model, which are described below. Click on the blue 'i' buttons below to learn more about the different aspects:

Patterns of growth

So how do humans grow? Are we able to make predictions or identify patterns of human development? There are three general principles that are commonly applied when discussing human growth: 1) Cephalocaudal Principle, 2) Proximodistal Principle, and 3) Orthogenetic Principle.

Cephalocaudal Principle

Growth starts from head and transits to the tail over the life span (see figure below). For example, while the head accounts for 25% of the newborns length, it only accounts for 12 % of an adults height.

Disease

Declines in health and functioning may be the result of disease. Among the most common diseases of old age is osteoporosis, a disease in which serious mineral loss results in loss of bone tissues and leaves the bones fragile (See below figure 2.5.3. Effects of Osteoporosis).

Effects of Osteoporosis

Of those aged 65 years and older, around 50% of women and 13% of men report having a osteoporosis diagnosis. Less than 2% of Indigenous Australians and about 3% of non-Indigenous Australians report having an osteoporosis diagnosis (AIHW, 2019). One fall can change an older persons entire lifestyle, requiring a shift from independent living to assisted living. In addition, older adults who experience a fall often begin to restrict their activities out of fear of falling again. Osteoporosis is especially problematic for older women, who have never had as much bone mass as men, and whose bones tend to thin rapidly after menopause.

Another common disease is osteoarthritis, which results from gradual deterioration of the cartilage that cushions the bones from rubbing against one another. The older person can no longer fasten buttons, squat down to pick up items, or even get into and out of the bathtub (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). The lack of motor abilities can result in elderly adults feeling incompetent and dependent on others. The figures for severe impairment and requirement for assistance increases with age; from 10% for Australians aged 65-69 years, to 68% for those aged 90 years and older (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012).

In relation to aging, many older adults are less fit than younger adults just because they reduce their involvement in vigorous physical activity (Katzel & Steinbrenner, 2012). Muscle atrophy occurs if muscles are not used, and the heart functions less well if the person leads a sedentary life (Rosenbloom & Bahns, 2006).

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 202-204. Take some time to read this section now.

Topic 6 : Health concerns across the life span

Introduction

Over the life span, people face different physical and health challenges (e.g., low birth weight, obesity). The United Nations, as part of its sustainable development goals, aims to end preventable deaths of newborns and children, and ensure healthy lives. Related to these goals, in this topic, we will look at the health challenges faced by a person at different stages of life.

Infancy

Low birth weight

While we might think that body weight issues are something faced by teens and adults, body weight (or rather the lack of) is a concern as soon as a baby is born into this world. Preterm babies are born at less than 37 weeks of gestation and are likely to have low birth weight (LBW; less than 2500grams). Global prevalence of LBW is approximately 15% and equates to about 20.5 million babies (Blencowe et al., 2019). Depending on the actual birth weight and gestational age when the baby was born, the odds of survivability differs. The table below shows the survivability and health of premature babies.

Childhood

Obesity

The number of children who meet the criteria for overweightness and obesity is growing globally (about 38.3 million children), and is one of the biggest concerns for child health.

Overweightness and obesity are defined as follows (WHO, 2020):

Overweightness:

weighing between 85th-95th percentile for children of same age and gender

Obesity:

weight at 95th percentile of higher.

For Indigenous children, the proportion who are overweight or obese, and the rate of BMI increase is significantly higher than non-Indigenous children (Anderson et al., 2016). This is concerning given the potential repercussions such as increased risk of physical health issues (e.g., high blood pressure, sleep apnoea), and emotional toll (Arens Muzumdar, 2010; Genovesi et al., 2012; Zeller & Modi, 2006).

Factors related to obesity

As with all age groups, the two biggest factors that influence overweightness and obesity are 1) diet, and 2) physical activity.

Diet

Fast food and snacks, which are often fried or high in sugar, are the main culprits for an increasing trend towards obesity (Malik et al., 2013). In Australia, the amount of energy consumed from fast foods are 42% for Indigenous and 38% in non-Indigenous children age 4-8 years. A similar trend is seen in the 14-18 year old group, with Indigenous children at 43% and non-Indigenous children at 40%. (AIHW, 2018). This highlights two things, 1) consumption of fast food is high in Australia, and 2) the consumption is higher in Indigenous compared to non-Indigenous children.

What contributes to poor dietary habits? Parents and the larger social environment.

Parents

Biologically, mothers who are obese or overweight will pass genes that predispose the child to obesity. Similarly, children who have parents that are obese, would more likely be exposed to an environment that promotes obesity (Steffen et al., 2009; Thibault et al., 2009). However, mothers who are more educated are more likely to know about healthy dietary habits and apply them to their own children (Northstone et al., 2013).

Larger Social Environment

Schools and community are sources of influence that can determine childrens dietary habits. In neighbourhoods with high levels of poverty and low levels of education, for example, children are more likely to be obese (Kimbro & Denney, 2013). Access to fast foods and junk foods that are within close proximity of schools or neighbourhoods can lead to increased consumptions of those foods (Borradaile et al., 2009).

In other words, where you live can determine what you eat. This point is being recognised and has led to an increase in awareness and discussions revolving the current food education in schools. For example, in UK and Welsh schools, students are required to attend cooking programs that teach them how to prepare meals that are consistent with dietary recommendations. Similarly, to complement existing food education in Australian schools, innovative ideas to promote better food awareness, such as kitchen garden have been introduced and are well received. In addition, Australian schools are relooking at how current food education is meeting the needs for students in the future based on food patterns, changes in technology, F&B marketing and environmental impacts. Follow this link to read an article that emphasises the importance of taking food education more seriously:

Physical Activity

Lack of physical activity is another major factor contributing to overweigh and obesity. Research suggests that more than half of Australian children (63%) are sedentary, and spend an average of 23 hours a week on the internet or watching television (Roy Morgan Research, 2017; Trost et al., 2013). Thus, it seems that current societal lifestyles are inadvertently promoting sedentary behaviours.

Neighbourhoods that provide facilities for safe outdoor activities can help to promote active behaviours (Franzini et al., 2009). This is especially the case for parents, as they will be unwilling to allow their children to go outdoors if they deem that it is unsafe (Cecil-Karb & Grogan-Kaylor, 2009). In addition, accessibility to these facilities and the availability of programs that support physical activity are essential in promoting an active lifestyle.

For example, theI-CANinitiative has fitness and running installations in remote Northern Territory to encourage physical activity in Indigenous Australians. Similarly,IMF RAWhas programs such as running groups that help to promote physical activity in Indigenous Australians all over Australia. However, the characteristic of the child (e.g., temperament, interests) is still an important factor in determining their physical activity levels (Saudino & Zapfe. 2009). Thus, it is the combination of both the childs characteristics and the environment, which determines actual physical activity behaviour.

Adolescence

Obesity and overweightness

Overweightness and obesity continue to be a prominent issue in adolescence (approximately 24% of Australian adolescents; AIHW, 2019), particularly if obesity commenced in childhood. Aside from genetic factors, sedentary lifestyle and consumption of fast food are still the main contributors to obesity. As adolescents gradually gain independence from their parents and start gravitating towards their peers, influence from peers become a larger contributor to their physical activity and dietary behaviours (Valente et al., 2009). This, unfortunately, can be disastrous as obese children might choose to stick with obese peers, which results in the reinforcement of poor dietary and sedentary behaviours.

Sleep

Teenagers are well known for having poor sleep patterns, with only 14-27% of teens getting 9 hours of sleep, and 25% getting less than 6 hours of sleep (Bartel et al., 2015). However, this may not be entirely due to their behaviours, such as use of screen time or playing video games (Bartel et al., 2015). In fact, puberty seems to be a big reason for the change in sleep patterns for teens. During puberty, the natural sleep time for teens gets later due to changes in melatonin (a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycle) production levels (Crowley et al., 2015). Unfortunately, standard times to attend school means that teens may not be able to get their required hours of sleep by waking up later in the morning.

This lack of sleep can have an impact on their motivation to complete tasks. Teens who are sleep deprived may struggle to complete tasks that they find boring, and may turn to caffeinated drinks or smoking in order to stay awake, both of which would further disrupt their sleep cycles (Carskadon & Tarokh, 2014; Chiang et al., 2014). They may experience irritability and aggression, have difficulty focusing on tasks and experience short-term memory problems (Carskadon, 2011; National Sleep Foundation, 2015).

Adulthood

The failing body

Early adulthood is regarded as the prime period for physical functioning. Young adults generally enjoy life, particularly given their increased spending power. However, in middle to late adulthood, physical functioning declines, and becomes one of the greatest health concerns. Aside from disease, there are two factors which are regularly linked to the reduction in physical functioning: disuse, and misuse.

Disuse

As adults grow older, due to various reasons (e.g., desk job, family commitments), they become less physically active, which results in them being less fit than younger adults (Katzel & Steinbrenner, 2012; King et al., 2000). Social factors play a large part in influencing physical activity behaviour in adults. Individuals who maintain strong social connections are more likely to be physically active than adults who areocially isolated and lonely (Hawkley et al., 2009). A reduction in the use of muscles leads to muscular atrophy, and a sedentary lifestyle leads to poor heart functioning (Rosenbloom & Bahns, 2006). Similar to earlier life, overweightness and obesity continues to be a problem in adulthood. About 66% of adults in Australia and New Zealand are overweight or obese, and this is an area of concern that needs addressing (AIHW, 2019; New Zealand Ministry of Health, 2019).

Misuse

Misuse (or abuse) of the body is a significant contributor to decrease in bodily functions. Excessive alcohol consumption, high fat diet, smoking, and drug abuse are all examples of misusing the body (Dowling et al, 2008; Martin, 2008). Drug chemistry and the prolonged abuse leads to organ damage and impaired functioning. However, on the opposite end, copious amount of exercise can also lead to impaired functioning in later life too. For example, wear and tear damage to joints due to high levels of sustained running or sports lead to a higher risk for arthritis and joint injury. These injuries can, in turn, promote a sedentary lifestyle due to the pain experienced when engaging in physical activity due to the injury. Your text contains information on this topic in pages 204-205. Take some time to read this section now.

Topic 1 : Cognitive development theories

Introduction

In this topic, we cover the major theories of cognitive development. These theories explain how we gain knowledge about the world across the life span. We consider the work of Piaget and Vygotsky whom you learned about in week 1 of this subject and introduce you to Fischer and his dynamic skill framework.

Cognitive development according to Piaget

Piaget theorised that children actively create knowledge through experiencing new things in their environment(nurture)and using their inborn intellectual functions(nature). After a great deal of careful observation, he noticed that children of a similar age made similar kinds of mental errors. Wondering if these age-related differences may represent a series of error patterns, he proposed that children create a schemaa set of rules that structure an individuals cognition. Piaget devoted his life to studying the way children think and his theories have largely stood the test of time (Miller, 2016). Although his initial studies involved the close observation of his own children, Piagets view of intellectual development progressively embraced larger samples; and to this day, many of his experiments can be replicated in age-appropriate samples.

The Piagetian school of intellectual and cognitive development

Piagets view of intelligence suggests that it is a basic life function, which helps us to adapt to our environment. We increasingly develop cognitive structures or organised patterns of action that represent our life experience we call these schemata. The development of schema allows children to better adapt to their environment (think about teaching an infant or a non-technology native to scroll to access a function on an electronic device). Adaptation occurs through two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation occurs when we interpret new experiences using existing schemata/memory. Consider an infant who practices overextension in language and calls any four-legged animal doggie. From Piagets perspective, the infant is showing signs of assimilating the new four-legged animal with the familiarity of the family dog.

Accommodation is the process of modifying existing schemata to explain a new experience. Consider an infant who encounters a cow for the first time. They likely realise that it doesnt agree with what they know is a dog, so they need to either redefine what a dog is or create a new category for the new animal.

According to Piaget, assimilation and accommodation are applied to all new experiences. So, when new experiences challenge an individuals existing schemata, they experience cognitive disequilibrium which stimulates growth in thinking, the formation of new understanding and a new equilibrium. We recognise this process as equilibration. Modern fMRI provides some support for this theory with research suggesting that children who are able to solve number conservation tasks (see video below) have more active brain areas when compared to children who are unable to solve the same tasks (see figure 3.1.1 below, Houde et al., 2011) which indicates that as children go through equilibration, new brain activation patterns emerge.

Vygotskys cognitive developmental theory

Vygotsky believes that cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural context, evolving from a childs social interactions, which are shaped by culture and the problem-solving strategies that adults, or other knowledgeable guides, pass on to them. According to Vygotsky, the child and the instructor are operating in a zone of proximal development (see figure 3.1.2).

Skills within the zone of proximal development can be developed with support and instruction, whereas skills outside the zone are either already known or still too difficult to develop (even with instructions). When the parent and the child are working within the zone of proximal development (which Vygotsky determines to have a magical 80% success rate), the child can internalise the problem-solving technique that he/she develops with the caregiver, acquiring new skills to solve the same problem in the future. A childs development is, therefore, a continuous effort in moving towards the upper range of the zone, using the knowledge, language and inventions of the childs society. The upper limit of the zone increases as society develops.

A strong observation of Vygotskys sociocultural theory comes from cultures in which children learn through guided participation. They actively participate in culturally relevant activities with the aid and support of parents and other knowledgeable guides (Rogoff, 1998). Parents provide a level of scaffolding and structure to the child, which gradually reduces as the child becomes competent. Such guided learning practices are observed in both children and adults across cultures. For example, Aboriginal community elders describe guided learning as occurring from an early age. Older children in these communities have roles in initiating and directing the play, but they also recognise and respond to younger childrens less developed understanding of sharing (Dender & Stagnitti, 2015).

Topic 2 : Piagets cognitive development across the life span

Introduction

According to Piaget, we move through four cognitive development stages:

Sensorimotor stage (Birth 2 years)

Preoperational stage (2-7 years)

Concrete-operations stage (7-11 years)

Formal operation stage (11 years and beyond)

Using Piagets cognitive theory as a platform, let us now see how Marys cognition develops over her life span.

Older adults

As an older woman, Mary continues to perform well in her tests of formal operations (Hooper et al., 1985). However, older adults often have trouble solving formal operation tests relative to young and middle-aged adults (Blackburn & Papalia, 1992). This could be because the average older adult today has less formal schooling than the average young adult. There is still ongoing debate regarding the cause or even the presence of a cognitive decline in later life.

Topic 3 : Sensation, perception and information processing theory

Introduction

Sensation is the process by which sensory reception neurons detect information from the environment. In contrast, perception is the interpretation of sensory input by the brain. Information-processing theory considers the brain as a computer that ages over the life span. The figure below shows a contemporary view of the information-processing model that features the basic mental processes of sensory-perception, attention and memory.

Hearing:The process of hearing begins when moving air molecules enter the outer ear and vibrate the eardrum. These vibrations are transmitted to the ossicle bones, which amplify the vibrations, and send it to the cochlea. The hair cells in the cochlea convert the vibrations into nerve signals, which are then sent to brain via the auditory nerve (see Figure 3.3.3).

Sensory perception

INFANT:

Vision:

Prior to birth, the foetus responds to bright lights from the outside world, such as a flashlight directed at the mothers belly. After birth, infants can track slow-moving objects. However, objects are blurry to infants unless objects are within 20 centimetres of the infant. It takes roughly six months to a year before the infant can see as clearly as an adult (Hofsten et al., 2014).

Infants have no trouble with depth perception, and react defensively to objects moving toward their face. Infants prefer to look at whatever they can see within this limited capacity to stimulate their visual ability (Hainline, 1998). They prefer to look at human faces than other targets (Gam, 2003), and can identify their mothers face (Sai, 2005).

Infants can see colours but cannot discriminate some colour differences until 2-3 months old. At four months, infants demonstrate an understanding of size constancy: they recognise that an object is the same size despite changes in its distance from the eyes (Granrud, 2006).

Hearing:

Prior to birth, the foetus is able to hear some sounds outside the womb at about 19 weeks from conception (Fifer et al., 2004). After birth, infants can hear better than they can see. They can localise sounds, and will turn away from loud sounds while approaching softer sounds (Burnham & Mattock, 2010).

Infants seem especially responsive to human speech and show a preference for speech over non-speech sounds (Vouloumanos & Werker, 2007). By 6 months, infants become insensitive to sounds that are not part of their native language while becoming increasingly sensitive to their native language (Kuhl, 2006; Werker, 2012).

CHILD

Sensory perception

Vision:

Visual acuity improves to adult levels around 46 years and contrast sensitivity develops completely by about seven years of age (Maurer et al., 2007). As the brain develops, the child gains the ability to consider multiple pieces of sensory information and draw on their memory to understand the sensory information better (Burr, 2012). By the end of childhood, sensory perception development is complete.

Attention

Attention determines which information enters the sensory register and the memory system. Preschool children have an adult-like orienting system but an immature focusing system of attention (Ristic & Kingstone, 2009). They are therefore not good at selective attention, where they are required to concentrate on a single task. Even when playing with their favourite toy, 2- and 3-year olds spend far less time concentrating on the toy than older children do (Ruff & Capozzoli, 2003). Children develop longer attention span as they get older, and become more competent at selective attention (Betts et al., 2006). Beyond ages 89, the growth in length of sustained attention slows down, and children develop better accuracy on tasks requiring sustained attention instead (Betts et al., 2006). While young children can perform well with intermittent distractions, task performance decreases when distraction is constant (e.g. constant background television noise; Kannass & Colombo, 2007). In such cases, children can benefit from regular reminders to stay on task (Kannass et al., 2010).

ADOLESCENT

Attention

Adolescents have longer attention spans than children. They can sit through longer classes, study for lengthier time and take tests that last 34 hours. This development seems tied to increased myelination in brain regions that help regulate attention (Nelson et al., 2006). In addition, adolescents become better at switching their attention from one task to another, which enables multitasking (Crone et al., 2006). However, those who regularly multitask are more easily distracted by irrelevant information than those who focus on one thing at a time (Ophir, 2009).

ADULT

Sensory perception

Sensory-perceptual capacities decline gradually during adulthood, and these changes are often minor. Only a minority of older people develop serious problems, such as blindness or deafness. Additionally, most older adults, even those with sensory impairments, are engaged in a range of activities and are living full lives (Wahl et al., 2013).

Vision:

Over time, our pupils become smaller and do not adjust to light conditions well. For example, older adults, experience poorer visual acuity under dim light, and take longer to recover from glare or bright light. In addition, the lens of the eye becomes yellow, less transparent and more dense. The thickening of the lens with age leads to refractive error, which reduces the ability to view close objects clearly. Refractive error and associated low vision (presbyopia) are leading causes of vision problems in middle aged Australians (Foreman, 2016).

Other leading causes of serious vision impairment include:

Cataract:Cataract is the clouding of a normal visual lens. It can be congenital or caused by prolonged high exposure to ultraviolet rays.

Glaucoma:Glaucoma is a result of increased fluid pressure in the eye. Glaucoma can damage the optic nerve and cause progressive loss of peripheral vision. The key in treating glaucoma is to prevent damage before it occurs, using eye drops or surgery to lower eye-fluid pressure. In many cases, however, the damage occurs before visual problems are experienced; only regular eye tests can detect a build-up of eye pressure.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD):AMD is a serious retinal problem that results from damage to cells in the retina responsible for central vision. Vision becomes blurry and begins to fade from the centre of the visual field, leading to a blank or dark space in the centre of the image. Genetics and lifestyle factors, such as smoking and lack of physical activity, have been identified as possible causes of AMD (Khan, 2006; McGuinness, 2017). Currently, there is no cure for AMD, but researchers are working to develop retinal implants that may restore some useful vision (Boston Retinal Implant Project, 2017). The figure below illustrates the different vision impairments.

Hearing:

After 50 years of age, sounds that are on the high and low end of the audio frequency spectrum become increasingly difficult to hear. Most age-related hearing problems originate in the inner ear (Schieber, 2006). The cochlear hair cells and their surrounding structures degenerate gradually over the adult years. Approximately 50% of Australians above the age of 60 have hearing loss (National Foundation for the Deaf, 2014). However, some people will experience severe hearing loss due to life experiences. Causes of hearing problems range from excess earwax build-up to infections and noisy environments. For example, a major cause of hearing loss for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults and children is middle ear infection related to poor living conditions and lack of health services access (Couzos et al., 2008). Your text contains information on this topic in pages 303-308, take some time to read this section now.

Working/short term memory

The short-term memory (STM) system stores approximately 7 (plus or minus two) items for several seconds. The working memory is an area that actively works on information that is in the STM (Baddeley, 2001).

INFANT & CHILD

The speed of mental processes improve with age, as neurons become myelinated, and this allows older children and adults to perform more simultaneous mental operations in working memory (Cowan et al., 2010; Ghetti & Lee, 2014).

Working Memory

By age 4 or 5, working memory activity becomes concentrated in the frontal lobes of the brain, as opposed to the more scattered brain activity seen in infants (Bell, 2007). Some research suggests that short-term memory capacity is task and knowledge specific (Schneider, 2015).

Memory is essential to problem-solving; this is especially the case for working memory. According to Sieglers information-processing perspective (1981), when children are faced with a problem, they use a rule assessment approach - which dictates what information is taken in and what rules are formulated - in finding a solution to the problem. Any failed attempts at problem-solving, was seen as a lack of encoding important information into memory or are guided by faulty rules. As children age, they refine these rules and get faster at problem-solving. However, Siegler noticed that adults are slower than children on some problems but indicated that it was likely due to adopting more complex strategies.

These findings indicate that children do not move from one mode of thinking to another as they age. Instead, regardless of the age group, children use multiple rules and strategies to solve problems, which suggests that children do not develop in a stage-like manner. This led to the proposal of the overlapping waves theory, which hypothesises that the development of problem-solving skills is a matter of knowing a variety of strategies, and becoming increasingly selective about which strategy to use, changing strategies as needed, and getting better at using known strategies (see Figure 3.3.5).

Based on the information-processing perspective, teachers would be able to promote students problem-solving by identifying and correcting what students notice (or not notice), and what strategies they apply.

ADOLECENT

Adolescents have greater functional use of their working memory. This is because maturational changes in the brain allow them to process information quickly and simultaneously in chunks. Coupled with better reading skills, they consequently perform better on a variety of academic subjects (Alexander, 2011; Alloway, 2010).

ADULT

Adults have a vast knowledge base and a good deal of knowledge and strategies about learning and memory. However, they experience difficulty in carrying out memory strategies due to:

declines in sensory abilities (Baltes, 1997)

diminishing working-memory capacity (Logie, 2015); Older adults do well on short-term memory tasks that require few pieces of information, but show deficits as the pieces of information increase)

decline in selective attention capacity; Older adults have trouble ignoring task-irrelevant information, leading to distractions by the environment (Stevens, 2008).

Therefore, an older adults working-memory space may become cluttered with unnecessary information, limiting the space available for the task at hand (Hoyer & Verhaeghen, 2006).

Long term memory, consolidation, storage and retrieval across the life span

The long-term memory (LTM) is where the information is stored for longer than several seconds. The information moves from working/short-term memory into long-term memory. There are two main types of LTM and can be seen in figure 3.3.6.

Implicit memory (nondeclarative) memory occurs unintentionally, automatically. Examples include learning to play a musical instrument or tying your shoelace. Implicit memory develops earlier in infancy than explicit memory (Bauer, 2008; Schneider, 2011). Implicit memory capacity changes little; young children often do no worse than older children, and elderly adults often do no worse than younger adults on tests of implicit memory (Schneider, 2011).

Explicit (declarative) memory involves effortful recollection of events and has two sub-types:

Semantic Memory:Memories of general facts and knowledge, such as knowing that the Indian Ocean is the third-largest ocean.

Episodic Memory:Memories of specific experiences and events. This can include autobiographical memory, such as remembering your first love or your breakfast last week

In order to store memory, the sensory-perceptual experience of an event is encoded and consolidated, transforming it into a long-lasting memory tracea process facilitated by sleep (Diekelmann, 2010; Kopasz, 2010). Maturation of the nervous system also supports the consolidations of long-term memories.Once consolidated, LTM is held instoragea long-term memory store.

Storage of memories show improvement over infancy and childhood due to the maturation of the brain (Bauer, 2009; Conklin, 2007). However, there is no consistent evidence to show that storage capacity changes across children, adolescents and adults (Cunningham, 2015).

When access to LTM is required, the process of retrieval occurs through recognition or recall. Recognition is the process of retrieval using cues, such as when you are doing a multiple-choice question. Recall, conversely, is the process of retrieval without cues, such as when you are answering an essay question.

INFANT

Recognition emerges during the first couple of months of life, and explicit memory improves as the brain becomes more mature in the second half of the first year (Nelson et al., 2006). By six months, infants can recognise the order of a simple sequence of events (Bauer, 2007).

Older infants (16-20 months) can retrieve memories up to 12 months after an event (Bauer et al., 2011). Infants can use words to reconstruct events that happened in previous months, and by the age of two, can retrieve memories using both recognition and recall (Lukowski & Bauer, 2014; Peterson & Rideout, 1998)

CHILD

Consolidation and retrieval

A child employs various consolidation and retrieval strategies such as:

rehearsal: repeating a list of items (Schneider, 2015)

organisation: classifying items into meaningful groups; this includes chunking, whereby information (e.g., 987123654) is broken down into manageable chunks (987 123 654)

elaboration: actively creating meaningful links between items to be remembered (Howe, 2006)

Consolidation strategies develop with rehearsal emerging first, followed by organisation and then elaboration. Younger children have mediation deficiency and cannot flexibly switch strategies, possibly because using a new strategy is mentally taxing and leaves no free cognitive resources for other aspects of the task (Pressley & Hilden, 2006).

Indeed, children younger than four years old show little flexibility in switching from an ineffective strategy to an effective one (Chen, 2007). Consequently, they tend to make perseveration errors in which they continue to use a previously successful strategy, despite the same strategy being currently unsuccessful (Chen, 2007). A decline in perseveration errors is seen in many 4- and 5-year-olds, where they flexibly switch and generate new strategies (Chen, 2007). However, children only begin to use organisation strategies between the age of 9 to 10 (Bjorklund, 2009).

Factors that can increase the likelihood of children using an appropriate strategy are:

personal relevance: Children as young as two years old can deliberately remember things such as reminding a parent to buy lollies at the supermarket.

metamemory awareness: It is the knowledge of memory, and monitoring and regulating memory processes. Children must not only know that a strategy is useful but also why it is useful in order to be motivated to use and benefit from its use (Schneider, 2015).

Semantic memory

Older children have a larger semantic memory/knowledge base, which improves their ability to learn and to remember. When performing tasks such as remembering a sequence of digits, a 10-year-old remembers more than a 2-year old because they are more familiar with the digits. However, the reverse can also be true if the younger child held greater expertise. Young children who were expert chess players have a better memory for locations of chess pieces compared to adults who were familiar with the game but lacked expertise (Chi, 1978). Additionally, when child chess experts were compared with adult experts, there were no differences in performance (Schneider, 1993). Nevertheless, recent studies show that older children and young adults perform better than young children in memorising familiar letters (Cowan, 2015).

ADOLESCENT

Episodic memory

Adolescents exhibit childhood amnesia. They have few autobiographical memories of events that occurred during the first few years of life (Bauer, 2014). For example, university students who had experienced the birth of a younger sibling before the age of 4-years old recalled very little of the event. Whereas those who experienced the event at the age of 4 or 5 recalled significantly more (see Figure 3.3.7, Davis, 2008).

This lack of episodic memory recall seems to be affected by toddlerparent conversations regarding past events (Fivush, 2014). Adolescents whose mothers provided rich elaborations in early mother-toddler conversations have stronger autobiographical memories (Jack et al., 2007).

Consolidation and retrieval

Adolescents master the strategy of elaboration (Schneider, 2015). More importantly, they develop and refine advanced learning and memory strategies highly relevant to school learning, such as note-taking and underlining skills. Additionally, adolescents make more deliberate use of memory strategies that children use unconsciously (Schneider, 2015). This enables them to choose strategies more selectively. For example, they may use memory strategies for exam materials and avoid irrelevant information (Lorsbach, 1997). Consequently, they become better able to tailor their strategies to different purposes (for example, studying versus skimming) and to judge task difficulties in order to adjust their strategies accordingly (Paulus, 2014). Adolescents who have received explicit training on metacognitive skills from their teachers show improvements in learning outcomes (Williams et al., 2002). This suggests that it is important to teach not only content but also how to monitor ones understanding of content acquisition (Farrington et al., 2012).

ADULT

Episodic memory

Adults seem to have more trouble with explicit memory tasks that require mental effort, than with implicit memory tasks that involve automatic mental processes (Nyberg et al., 2012). Older adults, therefore, have little trouble with skill-based tasks that have become habits over time. In contrast, they show steady declines in episodic memory (Nyberg et al., 2012). The reason for a decline in episodic memory is attributable to a limitation in working memory (Bailey, 2009). This limitation can also contribute to difficulty in performing a range of cognitive tasks (Hartley, 2006).

Many older adults have used the selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) framework (Baltes, 2013; Riediger, 2006) to cope with episodic memory decline. The framework consists of:

selection involves focusing on a limited set of goals and the skills needed to achieve them. However, this compensation strategy could result in reduced participation in cognitively demanding activities that have cognitive health benefits (Hess, 2014).

optimisation involves making use of an individuals strengths while minimising weaknesses.

compensation involves developing ways around tasks that an individual is unable to complete.

Both middle-aged and older adults use SOC (Robinson et al., 2016). Although older adults use SOC less than middle-aged adults, both groups are more likely to use SOC when they experience greater stress. In addition, SOC has been used to help older adults overcome weaknesses in explicit memory by capitalising on the relative strength of their implicit memory.

Consolidation and retrieval

Adults recall more information from their teens and in their twenties than from any other time, with exception to recent event (Rubin, 2002). This reminiscent bump may occur because memories from this time of life typically coincide with the major life events of: leaving home, acquiring education or training for a job or career, forming romantic relationships and starting a family (Berntsen & Rubin, 2012; Conway, 2005). These events form ones life script and are distinctive (Berntsen & Rubin, 2012). The more unique an event is, the easier the recall (Bauer, 2007).

The emotional intensity associated with events also influences recall (Bauer, 2007). Events associated with extreme negative or positive emotions are recalled better than events without such emotions. This enhanced memory for emotion-arousing events occurs even though the emotion associated with the event dissipates with time (Paz-Alonso, 2009).

Many older adults, however, report having minor difficulties with consolidation and retrieval (Reid, 2006; Vestergren, 2011), which results in performance decline in tasks such as:

Timed tasks:Older adults are slower than young adults to consolidate and retrieve information. They may require more repetitions to remember the same materials equally well (Finkel et al., 2003).

Unfamiliar or artificial content:Older adults find it more difficult to consolidate unfamiliar or materials that they cannot relate with their existing knowledge. They can nevertheless outperform young adults on familiar material (Badham, 2016).

Recall versus recognition:Older adults are likely to be more deficient on recall tasks than on recognition tasks (Charles, 2003). This shows that older people have consolidated the information but require cues to retrieve it.

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 308-315, take some time to read this section now.

Topic 4 : Language, literacy and learning

Introduction

In this topic, you will be introduced to the basics of language and its development throughout the life span. The interrelationship between language and learning will be discussed, and you will also learn about the influence nature and nurture has on the trajectory of language and learning development.

Global languages

Globally, there are approximately 7000 spoken languages, with Asia having the most (~ 2300). The Chinese language has the most speakers (~1.39 billion). Approximately 300 languages are spoken within Australia (see figure below). Approximately 110 of these are Indigenous Australian languages. However, only 13 of these are actively being acquired by children (AIATSIS, 2019).

The following link will provide you with more detailed information on how languages are spread across the world:

Sadly, it is predicted that the number of spoken languages worldwide will be reduced by 50% in the next century. Australia is no exception, with Indigenous Australian languages decreasing from 250 to 110 between the years 1788-2019, and a predicted further decrease to only 13 languages by 2080. In hope of preserving as many of these languages, the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) has been actively promoting the importance of Australian Indigenous languages and culture. This is in tandem with similar global efforts, which culminated in the year 2019 being celebrated as the International Year of Indigenous Languages.

The links below will provide you with more information on efforts to preserve Indigenous languages globally and in Australia:

Basic components of language

Language is a communication system in which a finite number of symbols (e.g., 26 letters in the English language) are combined according to socially agreed rules, to produce an almost infinite number of messages. Mastering a language requires an individual to master the fundamental skills in the language. These skills include:

combiningphonemesandmorphemesto form words and sentences

usingsyntaxto chain words and link them into sentences

usingsemanticsto understand the meaning of words and in turn sentences

applyingpragmaticsto best use the language for different situations and contexts

changing sound features orprosodyof speech.

Phonemes are the fundamental components of language. These are basic units of sound that are combined to produce words. Phonemes are important because they can change the word meaning. For example, in English, the phonemes /b/ and /r/ can be combined in the word brown, but not the phonemes /b/ and /m/, which produce the word bmown. There are also more phonemes than letters because letters can be pronounced in different ways. Take fish, for example, it can be spelt f-i-s-h, but the construction of ghoti can also be pronounced as fish. See below for how this is possible!

gh = pronounced as in rouGH (f)

o = pronounced as in wOmen (i)

ti = pronounced as in naTIon (sh)

Syntax ; The rules for combining words and constructing sentences lies insyntax. Strong is the force within you would violate English syntax rules, for example (but maybe not Yodas!). In addition, depending on the positioning of the words, similar sentences can convey different meanings. As an example, the sentences Fang bit Fred, and Fred bit Fang have the correct syntax in English, but the two sentences have very different meanings. Different languages also follow different syntax. The sentence Fang Fred bit violates the English syntax but is acceptable in the Japanese language.

Morphemes are the basic units of a word that has meaning. Words can consist of one morpheme, such as view, or they can contain more than one morpheme such as review (re + view) or previewing (pre + view + ing). The addition of a morpheme can change the meaning of a word. It is important to note, however, that morphemes and syllables are not the same. Monster for example has two syllables but only one morpheme.

Semantics

Semanticsgovern the meaning of words and sentences. As an individual word green would indicate a colour, but in the sentence Shrek is green with jealousy does not mean that Shrek is green in colour but rather Shrek is jealous.

Pragmaticsspecify rules about how individuals should use language in different social contexts, allowing effective and appropriate communication in different settings. Thus, it is important to know your listener (e.g., their existing knowledge, who they are, what they want) when communicating. For example, John is more likely to get a biscuit from his grandma if he says, May I please try one of your yummy biscuits? versus Give me that biscuit now!

Prosodyrefers to the adjustment of voice in speech production (i.e., melody). These adjustments include pitch, intonation, timing and accentuation. Different speech prosodies result in different meanings. For example, a child may say dog with little change in pitch, with the conveyed meaning arriving as There is a dog. However, by changing intonation, the word dog can easily be expressed as a question instead, such as Dog? or as an exclamation of excitement as in DOG!

Indigenous languages

Kia Ora Or welcome is one of the first phrases in the Mori language that visitors might learn when visiting New Zealand. An estimated 125 000 people identify as Mori speakers, with the more fluent of speakers mostly over the age of 65. The Mori language consists of 15 letters, with 8 consonants, 5 vowels (the same vowels as in English), and 2 digraphs (i.e., two letters that form a single sound like wh).

Some resources for learning the Mori language can be found below:

Mori Made EasyMori LanguageIndigenous Australian language

Indigenous Australian languages are largely divided into two groups; Pama-Nyungan, which covers about 90% of the Australia continent, and Non-Pama-Nyungan. As to be expected, there are linguistic differences between the English and Aboriginal Australian languages such as the number of vowels, variations in vowels, consonant types, and grammar.

A list of the different Aboriginal Australian languages and their structure can be found here:

In addition to speaking, sign language is a significant part of the Indigenous Australian language system. Sign language in Indigenous Australian is used in various contexts such as when mourning or when communicating confidential information. Watch the video below to learn some of the traditional hand signs in Yolu Sign Language.

Source: Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages. (2010, July 13).Clifton Bieundurry - traditional hand signs (Australia)[Video]. YouTube.https://youtu.be/qLwf2b4kWKoFor those who are keen to learn some words in Indigenous Australian languages, follow the link below to learn from four young speakers of the language:

Source: Lera Boroditsky. (2018).How language shapes the way we think[Video]. YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6kNature & nurture

Human biology prepares us for language acquisition but the influence of the environment in language development across the life span cannot be ignored. Thus, it is important to understand the reciprocal relationship between nature and nurture, and how that impacts language development.

Nature

We, as a species, have been gifted with an innate ability to acquire language skills. The brain network involved in language processing is similar across individuals, with every individual sharing more than 99% of the same genetic code (Friederici, 2009; Kuhl & Rivera-Gaxiola, 2008). Naturally, genes play a role in individual language development. For example, the gene FOXP2 is associated with the motor skills necessary for speech. Those with FOXP2 gene damage are unable to speak (Graham & Fisher, 2013).

The current knowledge of these brain networks is determined mostly from studying patients who lost some aspect of language processing. Two areas associated with language are the Broca and Wernickes areas. Damage to fibres associated with these areas can lead to comprehension and/or speech difficulty. Both areas are lateralised to the left hemisphere. However, the right hemisphere is also involved in language, specifically with prosody and melody (Gervain & Mehler, 2010; Veroudea et al., 2010). Other more specific areas associated with language can be seen in the figure below.

Brain regions associated with language:

In addition to genes and biological brain structures, it has been hypothesised that the human mind is equipped with a universal Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which enables humans to learn languages in a systematic way (Chomsky, 2000). The LAD enables the child to infer the language governing rules and then apply these rules to comprehend and produce their language (see figure below).

Language Acquisition device:

Support of this model includes observations that children can acquire complex communication despite receiving limited linguistic inputs from their environment (Clark & Lappin, 2011). For example, children can produce many sentences that they are unlikely to have heard from their caregivers, such as All gone biscuit or It swimmed.

Nurture

While the current understanding is that nature provides individuals with a primary language acquisition structure, the surrounding environment heavily influences language learning. The key element in language learning is that children need to be actively involved in using language in order to acquire it (Hoff, 2006). For example, researchers found that Dutch-speaking children who watched many German television shows did not go onto acquire German words or grammar (Snow et al., 1976).

Learning a language from the surrounding environment can be achieved through imitation and reinforcement.

Imitation is the learning method whereby an individual replicates behaviour (e.g., speech, action) based on observations. Children use imitation to learn words and accents that they hear spoken by others (Floor & Akhtar, 2006). For example, 18-month-old infants can learn nouns and verbs by listening to conversations between two adults, even though the spoken words are not directed their way (better watch what you say in front of kids!).

Reinforcement is a learning method where desired behaviours are encouraged, usually in the form of a reward. In contrast, undesired behaviours are ignored or punished. Reinforcement based learning in language acquisition can be seen when children are encouraged by their caregivers to engage in conversations using new words (Schoberger, 2010).

Parental guidance during childhood

Parents can foster literacy through different methodologies. The driving theory behind these methods is Vygotskys framework in which both the parent and the child operate in a zone of proximal development (see cognitive development topic above).

Parents can foster literacy by:

reading storybooks to children (Evans & Shaw, 2008).

asking increasingly complex questions about the text to enhance their childs understanding and improve their mastery of reading (van Kleeck et al., 1998).

emphasising phonological awareness: the idea that spoken words are made up of sounds corresponding to the letters of the alphabet (Hulme et al., 2012; Melby-Lervag et al., 2012)

In Australian Indigenous populations, children told stories in Indigenous language were found to have a larger Indigenous vocabulary. The same group of Indigenous children also had better English vocabulary development when their parents engaged in more book reading with them (Farrant et al., 2014).

Reading programmes combine phonological awareness with whole-language instruction. This leads to better reading skills (National Reading panel, 1999; Torgerson et al., 2006). Click the tabs below to see what is involved in each of these instructions:

Phonological Awareness:

Children learn that spoken words are made up of sounds corresponding to the letters of the alphabet (Hulme et al., 20012). See the video below for some of the techniques used to help children improve this skill.

Whole-language:

Children learn to recognise specific words by sight and contextual cues (Donat, 2006). To access some language training games, click on the links below:

Dyslexia

Approximately 5-10% of the global population experience reading difficulty as a result of dyslexia (~ 700 million people; Dyslexia International, 2014), and in Australia, it affects between 3-20% of people (Castles et al., 2014). The prevalence of dyslexia in the Indigenous Australian population is unclear. However, there is evidence that educational outcomes are potentially poorer than for other Australians. Most of this difference is likely due to SES and disadvantage. However, it is possible that dyslexia also contributes.

There are two types of dyslexia: lexical dyslexia and phonological dyslexia. Children with lexical dyslexia cannot distinguish between letters with a similar appearance, or they read words backwards (e.g., top becomes pot). The majority of children with dyslexia have phonological dyslexia, where they show deficiencies in phonological awareness and are unable to read non-words such as explod (Guttorm et al., 2005; Giraud & Ramus, 2013). Nevertheless, dyslexic children can learn to use other cognitive abilities, such as attention and working memory, to compensate for their poor phonological awareness and become competent readers (Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2013). There are apps available (and being developed) to support the learning needs of those with dyslexia as well as assisting with the diagnosis.

Topic 5 : Language development across the life span

Introduction

Language development requires the interaction between a child (who is biologically prepared for language acquisition) and a conversation partner who can tailor the speech to the childs understanding. Language skills are acquired as a function of the childs development and interaction with the environment.

Topic 1 : Intelligence development

Introduction

Intelligence lies on a continuum with giftedness on one end and intellectual disability on another. Our need to understand and predict success has driven much of the research to measure intelligence. In this topic, we will describe the different perspectives on intelligence and look at how intelligence develops over the life span. Let's start with a look at the different measures of intelligence used in psychology.

Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence

Slide 1 of 5

In 1904, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon were commissioned by the French government to devise a test to identify dull children who need special instruction. For example, creating a set of 12-year-old test questions that most 12-year-old children can complete but not those younger. They developed a questionnaire that estimates a childs mental age. By dividing this mental age score (MA) with the childs actual age score (CA), the intelligence quotient (IQ) is calculated (IQ = MA/CA 100).

An IQ score of 100 indicates average intelligence, regardless of a childs age. A child with an actual age of 8 but a mental age score of 10 is considered to have experienced rapid intellectual growth and has a high IQ (125). Conversely, if a 15-year-old child has a mental age score of 10, then the child has an IQ of 67 and is below average. The Stanford-Binet Test is not the only measure for intelligence. Lets take a look at other measures of intelligence.

Verbal comprehension

The ability to use vocabulary and general knowledge

Visual-spatial

The ability to work with blocks and visual puzzles

Fluid reasoning

The ability to apply quantitative and analogical reasoning to figure out patterns and solve problems by identifying missing parts

Working memory

The ability to remember and repeat sequences of numbers and letters, as well as to memorise parts of scene images while comprehending the scene situations at the same time

Processing speed

The speed of visual-perceptual and motor processing

CattellHornCarroll (CHC) theory

Intelligence, according to the CattellHornCarroll (CHC) theory (see figure 4.1.1; Carroll, 2005), is viewed as a hierarchy of three levels:

A general ability factor, which determines how well an individual performs on a range of cognitive tasks.

Several broad dimensions of ability that includes fluid intelligence (an individuals ability to solve new problems actively) and crystalline intelligence (an individuals ability to use the knowledge acquired through schooling and other life experiences).

Specific abilities such as numerical reasoning, spatial discrimination and word comprehension that also influence how well a person performs on cognitive tasks associated with the dimensions.

Gardners theory of multiple intelligence

So far, we have characterised general intellectual ability through a single IQ score, however other theories propose that intelligence is multidimensional and cannot be captured by a single score. Gardners theory of multiple intelligence proposes at least eight distinct intellectual abilities (Gardner, 1999):

Verballinguistic

Language skills, such as those seen in a poets facility with words

Logical-mathematical

The abstract thinking and problem solving shown by mathematicians and computer scientists

Musical Thinking

Intelligence based on an acute sensitivity to sound patterns, shown by musicians

Spatialvisual

The capacity to think in images and to visualise accurately and abstractly; shown by artists who can successfully convey to others what they perceive

Bodilykinaesthetic

The skilful use of the body to create crafts, perform or fix things; shown by dancers, athletes and surgeons

Interpersonal

Social intelligence characterised by exceptional sensitivity to other peoples motivations and moods; demonstrated by salespeople and psychologists

Intrapersonal

A deep capacity to reflect on ones feelings and inner life and self-analyse; demonstrated by philosophers and theorists

Naturalist

Thinking that is based on expertise and hands-on engagement in the natural world of plants, animals and the outdoors; shown by farmers and conservationists

Evidence for this theory can be seen in savant syndrome, where a person displays extraordinary talent in a particular area but is otherwise considered as intellectually disabledfor example, an individual with cerebral palsy displaying strong musical but weak bodily-kinaesthetic ability. Watch the video below about Kim Peek who was the inspiration for the movie Rain Man.

Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence

Another multidimensional theory of intelligence is the triarchic theory of intelligence, which emphasises the following components (See figure 4.1. Sternberg, 1985):

Practical intelligence

An individuals ability to adapt to different environments and to shape the environment to optimise their strengths and minimise their weaknesses.

Creative intelligence

An individuals response to novelty, such as when encountering new tasks that have not been previously experienced.

Analytic intelligence

An individuals information-processing skills that are assessed by traditional intelligence tests, although this also includes the processes which the individual uses to arrive at the answer.

This theory of intelligence has since expanded to include successful intelligencethe ability to identify reasonable goals given the individuals skills and circumstances (Sternberg, 2011). There is evidence to support the validity of the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test in measuring the three components of intelligence, and in augmenting other standardised tests to predict primary school to higher education performance (Stemler et al., 2006).

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence, or Emotional Quotient (EQ), is a type of intelligence that is somewhat distinct from IQ, and has gained popularity in the last two decades. EQ has been described in various ways but share certain commonalities: the ability to a) perceive and understand emotions (self and others), and b) regulate those emotions (Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, 1998; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Essentially, EQ is the intelligent use of emotions (Ackley, 2016, p. 271). Based on these descriptions, EQ seems to be related to certain dimensions of intelligence, such as Gardners Interpersonal and Intrapersonal intelligence dimensions, empathy and Theory of Mind (Cadman & Brewer, 2001; Ferguson & Austin, 2010; Ioannidou & Konstantikaki, 2008).

Emotional intelligence at work

Watch the video below to see how Goleman describes EQ.

Source: Big Think. (2018, September 30).Emotional intelligence at work: Why IQ isnt everything[Video]. YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ngIFlmRRPQEmpirical data suggest that EQ is associated with professional and academic success (Colfax et al., 2010; Ghanizadeh & Moafian, 2010; Gondal & Husain, 2013), and EQ has even been suggested as a prerequisite for certain professions (Cadman & Brewer, 2001).

Importantly, research suggests that EQ seems to be an ability that can be developed (Clarke, 2007). For example, a leadership program targeting EQ has been shown to be effective in improving emotional intelligence of program participants (Muyia & Kacirek, 2010). Similarly, children who underwent a 12-week emotional intelligence program showed improved EQ scores at the conclusion of the program (Ulutas & Omeroglu, 2007).

The influence of nature and nurture on intelligence

Genetic factors seem to set the upper and lower limits of intelligence. For instance, identical twins obtain similar IQ scores compared to fraternal twins, even when they were raised apart (Bouchard, 1981). Moreover, the IQ scores of adopted adolescent children have a stronger correlation with IQ scores of their biological parents than adoptive parents.

Although genetic factors appear to set an individuals intelligence limit, nurture seems to play a significant role in determining the individuals actual intelligence. Studies have found that an important factor for intellectual development is parental involvement and opportunities for stimulation (Gottfried, 1994). Stimulation involves responding to the childs behaviour (a smile for a smile) and being engaged in activities within the childs optimal developmental zone are best for fostering new levels of intelligence (Smith et al., 2000). Thus, parents who have less time and resources tend to have children with lower IQ scores (Sulloway, 2007).

Another factor contributing to child intelligence is social status. Children who live in families of low social status have lower IQ compared to middle-class children, regardless of racial and ethnic membership (Helms, 1997). Low social status is not only related to slower cognitive development but also a lower developmental endpoint (Espy, 2001).

In adults, the intellectual environment married couples provide for each other impacts their intelligence. Couples IQ test scores become similar over the years, largely because the lower-scoring partners scores rise closer to those of the higher-scoring partner (Gruber-Baldini, 1995; Weinert, 2003).

Cognitive decline

The cognitive decline in old age influences intelligence, and is in part due to an unstimulating lifestyle. Elderly widows who have low social status, for example, tend to be isolated and disengaged with their lives (Schaie, 2012). Those who have poorer health status, also show steeper declines in intellectual abilities than their healthier peers (Schaie, 2012). Diseases and the medication used to treat them also contribute to the rapid decline in intellectual abilities a few years prior to death (Singer et al., 2003).

Intelligence and health

Individuals with higher intelligence tend to live healthier and longer lives (Gottfredson,2004). Those who scored one standard deviation (~15 points) below the average on IQ tests were less likely to live past the age of 76, and more likely to have experienced significant health issues (e.g. cancer, CHD). The common explanation for this relationship is the association between higher intelligence and higher socioeconomic status. Another explanation is based on efficient learning and problem solving. Successful monitoring of health and proper application of treatment protocols require a certain amount of intelligence, such as those managing diabetes (Gottfredson, 2004).

Intelligence and occupational uccessAccording to a longitudinal study using a large North American sample, intelligence, income and occupational prestige are positively correlated (Judge et al., 2010). Those with higher intelligence started with a slight advantage for income and occupational prestige but quickly began rising at a faster rate than those with lower intelligence (see figure 4.1.3). This rapid rise could be because individuals with higher intelligence obtain more education and training, enabling them to tackle jobs that are more demanding. Their intelligence, therefore, provided them with an advantage in rising to the top of the occupational ladder (Judge et al., 2010).

Intellectual disability

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, intellectual disability (IQ < 70) is characterised by deficits in adaptive functioning; how well an individual copes with everyday situations and tasks (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

About 3% of school age children are classified as intellectually disabled (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2008). Often, these children have associated impairments, such as cerebral palsy, behavioural problems, physical impairments or sensory disorders. Generally, these children progress through developmental milestones similarly to other children, although at a slower rate (Hodapp et al., 2011). Their IQs remain low because they do not achieve the same level of growth. Nevertheless, they show signs of intellectual ageing in later life, especially on tests requiring processing speed (Devenny et al., 1996).

Giftedness

A gifted child is identified based on an IQ score of more than 130. Programs for gifted children focus mainly on those with very high IQs. Still, there is increasing recognition that giftedness is based on having special abilities (i.e., Gardners eight intelligence measures) rather than having high general intelligence.

Gifted children show no signs of social or emotional maladjustment if forced to fit in with much older students (Noble & Childers, 2009). On several measures of psychological and social maturity and adjustment, gifted children equalled their much older university classmates. Many of them thrive in university, perhaps finding friends who are like-minded rather than like-aged (Noble et al., 2008).

At middle age, 88% of gifted adults were employed in professional or high-level business jobs, compared to 20% of men in the general population (Oden, 1968). Even in their 60s and 70s, most of the gifted men and women were highly active, healthy and happy people (Holahan & Sears, 1995). Interestingly, even within this group, the quality of the individuals home environment is important. The most well-adjusted and successful adults have highly educated parents who offer them both love and intellectual stimulation (Tomlinson-Keasey & Little, 1990).

Creativity

Most scholars define creativity as the ability to produce novel responses appropriate to the context and valued by others (Simon, 2001; Sternberg, 2003). Ideational fluency or the sheer number of different/new ideas that a person can generate within a given time is often used to assess creativity (Runco, 2007). IQ scores and creativity scores though do not correlate very well because they measure two different types of thinking. IQ tests measure convergent thinking, which involves finding the one best answer to a problem. In contrast, creativity involves divergent thinking or identifying a variety of ideas or solutions to a problem when there is no single correct answer. Therefore, it has been argued that creativity is a process involving the convergence of multiple factors such as talent, personality, motivation, and in consideration of the context in which quality and originality are judged (Gardner, 2011, 2013).

Influence of nature & nurture on creativity

Nature

Although genetics appear to have little direct influence on creativity, they may have an indirect affect through personality. Lets take a quick look at three examples

PASSION

Individuals who have a real passion in what they do are internally motivated and thirst for challenges, both of which are crucial elements of creative productivity (Sternberg, 2010b; Yeh, 2006).

POSITIVITY

Individuals with a positive outlook also seem more likely to display creativity, perhaps because they are more open to, and derive pleasure from, challenges (Yeh, 2006).

TAKING RISK

Creative individuals display a willingness to take risks and can put up with some ambiguity without becoming frustrated (Proctor, 2004; Sternberg, 2010).

Nurture

In contrast, the environment in which we live appears to have a more direct influence on creativity. Parents of creative children and adolescents tend to value nonconformity and independence, accept their children as they are, encourage their curiosity and playfulness, and grant them the freedom to explore new possibilities on their own (Runco, 2007). As an adult, creative individuals are blessed with environments that recognise, value and nurture their creative endeavours (Sternberg, 2010). Additionally, young adolescents from multicultural families (e.g., parents from two different nations) tend to perform better in creativity tests compared to monoculture families, even when controlling for family background and personality factors (Chang et al., 2014).

Creativity across the life span

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Infancy to Adolescence

It is currently unclear if infants display creative behaviours as researchers have yet to develop a method to measure creativity in infants. In addition, it is possible that infants are unable to learn or display creativity because they have not developed the cognitive capacity to do so.

In childhood, creative children show more freedom, originality, humour and playfulness than high-IQ children. Creative children also engage in more fantasy or pretend play, often inventing new uses for familiar objects and new roles for themselves (Kogan, 1983). They have an active imagination, and their parents are often tolerant of their unconventional ideas (Runco, 2007). Finally, creative children are more likely to be open to new experiences and ideas, as are their parents.

Creativity scores, as measured by ideational fluency, increase until about Grade 3, levelling off during Grade 4 and 5, and decline soon after (see figure 4.1.4; Kim, 2011). Originalityanother measure of creativityshows a sharp drop-off starting in Grade 6, which may reflect pressures to conform to group norms.

Ideational fluency, remains low throughout adolescence (Kim, 2011). Despite this, it seems that creative characteristics such as curiosity and risk-taking behaviour increase significantly throughout adolescence (Wu, 2005). Overall, the developmental course of creativity fluctuates with age in response to developmental needs and task demands (Claxton, 2005).

Adults

Peak times of creative achievement varies from field to field (Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). The productivity of scholars in the humanities (e.g., historians, philosophers) continues well into old age, possibly because creative work in these fields often involves integrating semantic knowledge over the years (see figure 4.1.5). In contrast, productivity in the arts (e.g., music, drama) peaks in the 30s and 40s and declines steeply after that, perhaps because artistic creativity depends on a more fluid or innovative kind of thinking. Scientists, however, peak in their 40s and declining only in their 70s.

Changes in creative production over the adult years is associated with the nature of the creative process rather than with a loss of mental ability. One reason why creativity production declines over time is that older creators may have used up much of their potential ideas (Simonton, 1999). This means that elderly adults do not differ much from younger adults in the originality of their ideas; the main difference is that they generate fewer of them. That said, many creators still produce outstanding workssometimes their greatest worksin old age, such as the Self Portrait Facing Death by Pablo Picasso at age 90 and Million Dollar Baby by Clint Eastwood at age 74.

Topic 2 : Emotional development

Introduction

Emotions are an important part of being human. It conveys messages about how we feel and can have a significant impact on our social interactions. Displaying sadness, for example, would signal to others to be empathetic and show concern. This, in turn, helps to build stronger relationships between both parties.

Types of emotions

Emotions can be categorised into two types: primary emotions and secondary/self-conscious emotions.

Primary Emotions

Begins in the first six months of life, plays a critical role in motivating and organising behaviour (Lewis, 2008). These emotions are devoid of self-consciousness and are primal. Emotions in this category include content, distress and interest, which later develops into happy, sad, and surprise, respectively.

Secondary Emotion

Begins at approximately two years, and appears after the infant develops self-consciousness. This starts when the infant understands the concept of me or I as a person and are able to recognise themselves in the mirror. They start displaying emotions such as bashfulness when asked to perform in front of others, and pride when they are able to achieve a goal. This is followed by teasing when they recognise others emotions can be manipulated (Thompson et al., 2011).

The figure below shows the development of primary to secondary emotions in the early years of a child.

Over the course of one's life, individuals such as Mary need to develop strategies to regulate his/her emotions. This involves tactics such as not thinking about situations likely to arouse unwanted emotion or altering her emotional responses to the event. For example, when Mary watches monster movies, she may learn to respond by avoidance of watching monster movies or putting on a brave face to hide her fear. At birth, Mary has only a few emotional regulation strategies, and she will develop newer and more sophisticated strategies as her capabilities develop (Kopp & Neufield, 2009). If Mary is unable to regulate her negative emotions, she will potentially have stormy relationships with parents, peers and is at risk of later developing behaviour problems (Meyer et al., 2014; Saarni et al., 2006).

Nature vs. nurture

Both nature and nurture can influence emotional development. Similarly, the development of emotional regulation skills is influenced by both the infants temperament (i.e.,nature) and by the caregivers behaviour (i.e.,nurture) (Grolnick et al., 2006; Meyer et al., 2014). Let us see how each plays a part.

Nature

Primary emotions, such as interests and fear, seem to be biologically programmed. The age with which these emotions emerge are consistent between infants across all cultures (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002; Sauter et al., 2010), and the timing of the emergence is correlated with cognitive maturation (Lewis, 2008). The infants genetic makeup is therefore thought to govern whether an infant tends to be happy or irritable, and whether they are eager to explore new environment (high interest) or easily distressed (Goldsmith, 2009; Rothbart, 2011). In addition, there seems to be temperamental differences in how infants are emotionally reactive to situations and their ability to control those reactions. Thus, it seems that both emotions and the regulation of those emotions are (at least in part) hardwired into our DNA.

Nurture

Caregivers can also influence the infants patterns of emotional expression (Fitness, 2013; Thompson et al., 2011). Observational studies noted that mothers mainly display positive emotionssuch as interest, surprise and joytowards their baby. As a result, infants learn to show happy, and interest faces and display them more often than negative emotions. In addition, through conversations between the parent and child, infants and young children learn when and how to express their emotions appropriately (Thompson et al., 2011).

Topic 3 : Theory and fundamentals of attachment

Introduction

We introduced some famous theorists in Week 1. Two notable psychoanalytic theorists, Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson, have argued that the bond between the parent/caregiver and the infant is the most important social relationship. Their argument gave birth to the most influential theory of human relationship: Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969).

Attachment theory

In Attachment Theory the lasting significance of the caregiver-infant relationship is emphasised. According to the theory, attachment is an affectional tie that binds an individual to a companion. Bowlby developed Attachment theory in trying to understand how attachment may have helped individuals to adapt to their environment (Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby 1969). He suggests that individuals use attachment to regulate emotional stress when under threat and achieve security by seeking an intimate companion.

A good quality attachment, such as secure attachment ( attachment styles discussed later), has a lasting impact on development. A good quality attachment contributes positively to the childs intellectual and social-emotional development. The child is able to initiate play activities, is more sensitive to the needs and feelings of other children and tends to be more popular and socially competent (Booth-LaForce & Kerns, 2009). The child is also likely to have fewer emotional and behavioural problems (Waters et al., 2010). These positive socio-emotional experiences are also related to higher IQ and school performances for the child (West et al., 2013).

Attachment can only be formed as a result of interaction between nature and nurture. Lets look at how each factor plays a role.

Nature

The capacity to form attachment is part of our evolutionary heritage. Evolutionary theorists believe that all species are born with behavioural tendencies that contribute to survival. This comes from the observation of young goslings that automatically follow a moving person or animal around within a critical period once they are born, and is irreversible (Lorenz, 1937). This automatic mechanism ensures the goslings survival, as it stays close to the mother in order to be fed and protected from predators. This mechanism, known as imprinting, is observed in several other species. Watch the videos below to see imprinting occurring in ducks and lions.

Source: Youtube. Biophily2 (2016, Sept 17) Konrad Lorenz Science of Animal Behaviour (1975) [video file].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IysBMqaSAC8Source: Youtube. Born Free Foundation (2008, July 28) Christian the Lion Full Ending [video file].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cvCjyWp3rEkHuman babies have several behaviours that contribute to attachment. In addition to following, other behaviours include suckling, clinging, smiling and expressing primary emotions. Through these range of behaviours, the infant ensures that the caregiver will stay with them and ensure their survival.

To further ensure attachment formation, adults are naturally sensitive to infants behaviours (e.g., it is difficult to ignore a babys cry or smile). Adults are also hormonally prepared for caregiving. For example, oxytocin is a hormone naturally produced in the brain (hypothalamus) that facilitates parent-infant attachment, as well as romance and trust (Hart, 2008; Schneiderman et al., 2012). Compared to mothers with low levels, mothers with a high level of oxytocin before birth tend to engage in more positive attachment behaviour after birth, such as greater sustained attention to their babies (Feldman, 2007).

Nurture

Attachments are developed through interaction between nature and nurture factors during a sensitive period of life. For humans, this sensitive period is in the first three years of life, with the first attachment typically formed around 6 to 7 months after birth. Human attachment requires both the infants natural behaviours and a social environment.

Research continuously shows how the strength of the parents influence (nurture) can affect attachment with the infant. The most important aspect of nurture is dependent on the caregivers provision of care to the infant. For instance, it has been observed that ignoring an infants behaviour, especially distress, by the caregiver leads to insecure attachments. (Benoit, 2004; Bowlby, 1969). This is especially true if the infants temperament is fearful, irritable and unresponsive (Beckwith et al., 2002; Leerkes et al., 2009).

At the same time, research has shown that secure and responsive care can also overcome an infants natural negative behaviour. Caregivers who are responsive and are sensitive to their babys temperamental issues can support the infant to regulate his/her emotions and achieve a secure attachment with the caregiver (Leerkes et al., 2009).

Attachment styles

Depending on the interaction between the childs innate nature and the caregivers responses, attachment types are developed. In order to assess the types of attachment in infants, a procedure known as Strange Situation was developed and used by Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978). It consists of eight scenarios that assess the amount of stress the infant experiences in different situations. The table below provides a description of the different scenarios and the behaviours that observers would lookout for.

The video below shows the procedure of the Strange Situation.

Closed captions availableSource: Youtube. Thibs44 (2009, Jan 17). The Strange Situation Mary Ainsworth. [Video file].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHUFour main attachment types are currently described based on outcomes of the assessment procedure; secure, resistant, avoidant and disorganised/disoriented.

Secure Attachments

About 55 to 65% of infants around the world have secure attachments with their primary caregivers (Archer et al., 2015).

A securely attached infant is characterised by the following observations:

The infant shows separation anxietyphenomenon where the infant becomes resistant, fearful and distressed when separated from the caregiverif the caregiver is separated from them. When the caregiver returns, the infant will greet the caregiver warmly and is comforted easily by the caregivers return.

The infant will not show stranger anxietya fretful reaction to the approach of an unfamiliar personwhen the caregiver is within the proximity.

The infant considers the caregiver as a secure basean anchor point that the infant can return to for comfortand is happy to explore the environment when the parent is close and will retreat to the caregiver for comfort if required.

Resistant Attachments

About 10% of 1-year old infants show resistant attachment. Hallmarks of a resistant attachment are anxious and ambivalent reactions.

A resistant infant shows the following characteristics:

The infant shows stronger separation anxiety than a secured infant. The resistant infant becomes distressed when the parent departs. Upon the parents return, the infant becomes ambivalent. The infant does not calm down and seems to resent the parent for leaving. The infant may resist attempt for physical contact with the caregiver and will even hit or kick the caregiver in anger.

The infant shows stranger anxiety even when the caregiver is present.

The infant does not consider the caregiver as a secure base. Consequently, the infant does not venture to new environments, even when the caregiver is present.

Avoidant Attachments

Up to 13% of 1-year old infants show avoidant attachment. Avoidant infants are observed to have distanced themselves from the parent as if they do not require any emotional need (Archer et al., 2015).

Infants with avoidant attachments will show the following characteristics:

The infant does not exhibit separation anxiety. The infant shows little distress when separated from the caregiver and seems indifferent when the caregiver returns.

The infant exhibits less anxiety and wary towards strangers. However, the infant may also avoid or ignore strangers just as they avoid or ignore their parents.

The infant will explore the environment but prefers to play alone. The infant is less adventurous than an infant with secure attachment.

Disorganised/Disoriented Attachments

Up to 15% of 1-year old infants show disorganised or disoriented attachment. Infants who display these attachments are observed to be associated with emotional problems later in life (Shemmings & Shemmings, 2014).

Infant with disorganised/disoriented attachment exhibits the following behaviours:

The infant sometimes exhibits separation anxiety. However, when reunited with the parent, the infant may act dazed or freeze on the floor immobilised. They may also seek contact but will move away as the parent approaches them, only to come back and seek contact again.

The infant exhibits stranger anxiety on some occasions and does not exhibit the anxiety on others.

The infant does not explore when the caregiver is present. The infant may not consider the caregiver as a secure base for exploration.

A possibility for the observation is that the parent is both a source of comfort and a source of fright. Another reason could be the infant has a deficient in emotional regulation capability.

A summary of the types of attachment with corresponding parenting styles can be seen in the table below.

Social isolation

Infants who were deprived from forming attachments due to situational factors (e.g., overcrowded orhanages), seem to have issues with development (e.g., cognitive and physical delays) and form maladaptive behaviours in later life. For example, as children they may display indiscriminate friendliness, lack of normal wariness of strangers and an inability to sustain various social interactionsa condition known as disinhibited attachment pattern (Zeanah et al., 2011). However, it is possible to reverse these effects with the presence of caregivers who are sensitive to the needs to the child.

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 568-569, take some time to read this section now.

Sigelman, C., et al. (2018).life span Human Development(3rd ed). Cengage AU.

Chapter 11: Emotions, attachment and social relationships. pp. 568-569

Attachment in adulthood:

Attachment during infancy has a strong influence on the adult romantic relationship (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). A strong romantic relationship in adulthood can be regarded in a similar way to a child who experiences secure attachment to the caregiver. The four attachment styles during adult relationships are described below, and can be delineated based on our views of self and others, as either negative or positive.

Adults with a secure attachment history during infancy are likely to have a secure relationship model during adulthood. That is, they exhibit a healthy level of attachment to their partner which reflects a balance of both intimacy and independence.

Preoccupied:

Adults with resistant attachment history during infancy an likely to have/show preoccupied relationship model during adulthood. They exhibit high attachment anxiety to their partner but feel unloved (low avoidance). They crave closeness to their partner as a means of validating their self-worth. They express anxiety and anger openly

Dismissing :

Adults with avoidant attachment history during infancy an likely to have/show dismissing relationship model during adulthood. They are low in attachment anxiety and high in avoidance. They have a positive view of themselves but do not trust other people and dismiss the importance of a close relationship. They are compulsively self-reliant (Bowlby, 1973). That is, they find it difficult to trust their partners and feel that their partner continuously desire more intimacy than what they can offer, and keep their partners at a distance.

Fearful :Adults with disorganised-disoriented attachment history show both high anxiety and high avoidance. They have a negative view of both themselves and their partner. They will display a need for relationships but display an unpredictable mix of need and fear of closeness.

The table below provides an overview of adult attachment styles based on an individuals view of self and others.

Topic 4 : Parenting styles

Introduction

According to Freud, one of the factors in attachment, based on psychosexual development, is oral pleasureusually from the mother. The attachment is most secure if the mother is relaxed and generous with her feeding practices. Learning theorists also agree that infants positive emotional responses towards the mother are associated with food. However, Harlow and Zimmerman (1959) showed that both theories were unsubstantiated.

Observing monkeys who were reared with a wired surrogate mother and a foam rubber mother, their experiment showed that strong attachment was only formed with the surrogate foam rubber mother, even when the food came from the wired mother. What Harlow and Zimmerman demonstrated was that contact comfortthe pleasurable tactile sensationprovided by the soft surrogate mother was more essential in promoting attachment for the monkeys than feeding (Bush, 2001). A video of the experiment by Harlow and colleagues can be found below

Source: Youtube. Michael Baker (2010, Dec 16). Harlow's Studies on Dependency in Monkeys. [Video File].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8IAnother essential factor that influences attachment types is parenting style. Let us look at the different parenting styles in the infant and childhood period below.

Infant

The attachment styles described in Topic 1 are strongly influenced by the style of parenting experienced by an infant.

Sensitive response

Parents who practices sensitive response exhibit high sensitivity to the infants need and emotions. Infants who experience these types of parenting often enjoy a secure attachment

Inconsistent, often unresponsive

Parents who react inconsistently (e.g., enthusiastically or indifferently) depending on their mood. These parents are also frequently unresponsive to their infant. This style of parenting usually leads to infants who exhibit a resistant pattern of attachment.

Rejecting/unresponsive, or intrusive and overly stimulating

Parents who provide too little or too much stimulation practice rejecting or intrusive parenting. Some parents are impatient, unresponsive and resentful when the infant interferes with their work. Others are overzealous, and provide high-levels of stimulations even when their infant becomes uncomfortably aroused. This style of parenting leads to infants who exhibit avoidant attachment.

Frightening and overwhelming (abusive)

Parents who are severely depressed or abuse alcohol/drugs generally practice this type of parenting. They might physically abuse or maltreat their infants. About 80% of infants who experienced this type of parenting regard their parents as frightening, and would exhibit a disorganised/disoriented style of attachment (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Beckwith et al., 2002; Valentino et al., 2014).

Childhood and adolescence

Parental guidance during childhood and adolescence involve two factors:demandingness-controlandacceptance-responsiveness. Parents are required to balance these two factors in their parenting as the child develops. This is especially the case during adolescence when the child attempts to achieveautonomy(i.e., to make decisions independently and manage life tasks without being overly dependent on their parents).

Demandingness-Control

Demandingness-control (permissiveness-restrictiveness) refers to the amount of control over decisions lies with the parents compared to the child.

Acceptance-responsiveness refers to the extent which parents are sensitive to their childrens needs, and are willing to provide a positive emotional reward when their children meet their expectation.

The permutations between the two factors result in four basic parenting styles of child-rearing:

Authoritarian Parenting

This parenting style involves high demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness. Authoritarian parents impose many rules, expect strict obedience and rely on power tactics such as physical punishment to gain compliance.

Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parenting style involves a balance of high demandingness-control and high acceptance-responsiveness. Authoritative parenting set clear rules and enforces them, but they also explain the rationale for their rules and restrictions. They are responsive to their childrens need and involve the children in family decision making.

Permissive Parenting

Permissive parenting involves high acceptance-responsiveness but low demandingness-control. Permissive parents have relatively few rules and demands. They encourage their children to express their feelings and ideas. They rarely exert control over their childrens behaviour.

Neglectful Parenting

Neglectful parenting lacks both demandingness-control and acceptance responsiveness. They are relatively uninvolved in the childs development. They are usually overwhelmed with their own issues and cannot devote sufficient energy to express love to their children or to set and enforce rules.

Culture

The effectiveness of a particular parenting style is heavily dependent on culture and whether children view it as normal and acceptable within the culture (Rothbaum & Trommsdorff, 2007). For example, there is a strong relationship between frequent use of physical discipline and high levels of child aggression and anxiety in cultures where the use of physical discipline was rare. However, in a culture where physical punishment is widely accepted, physical discipline was not strongly associated with child behaviour problems as seen in the figure below (Lansford et al., 2005).

Assessment methods such as the Strange Situation may not be suited to determine quality of attachment across cultures. Using the Indigenous Australian population as an example, the following behaviours might be seen as different from Western models of attachment:

Aboriginal children may not display any explorative behaviour. This is because they tend to be carried before two years of age, instead of crawling and walking.

Aboriginal parents, by culture, believe that it is best not to respond to the infants distress. This is because they believe that it is not a natural need of the child and they want to minimise distress rather than respond to it.

Aboriginal children tend to seek multiple caregivers, including siblings. This is not because they exhibit avoidant attachment, but rather it is because multiple caregivers during child-rearing are the norm in Aboriginal culture.

On the flipside, allowing children to crawl on the floorwhich is common in Western culturemight be seen as unusual to Chinese parents in Singapore.

Topic 5 : Attachment over the life span

Topic 6 : Child abuse

Introduction

We have discussed in the earlier topics, how secure attachment and authoritative parenting generally lead to a healthy and long-lasting relationship. It has also been observed that individuals with secure attachment styles calmly share their feelings, compared to adults with avoidant or resistant attachment styles (Roisman, 2007). Importantly, it has been shown that parents with preoccupied relationships as a result of resistant attachment are at risk for family violence

Child abuse

Child abuse is the mistreating or harming of a child physically, emotionally or sexually. Under-reporting of child sexual abuse is observed in some cultures (Bailey et al., 2017). An estimate of the occurrence of different types of abuse in Australia can be seen in the figure below (Price-Robertson et al., 2010). Note that some children are subjected to more than one form of abuse.

Although mental illness is one risk factor for abuse, only 10% of child abusers suffer from psychological disorders (Jaffee, 2013).

Differences between child-abusing parents and other parents are:

Child abusers may have been abused as children (Finzi,-Dottan & Harel, 2014).

Abusive mothers often experience domestic violence by their partners (Chan et al., 2012).

Abusers are often individuals who experience insecure attachment relationships with their parents and negative experiences in romantic relationships (Finzi-Dottan & Harel, 2014).

Abusive parents have unrealistic expectations of their child (Pidgeon & Sanders, 2009). For example, a mother can interpret her 3-month-old infant's babbling as talking back (Bugental, 2009)

There is a higher chance of abusive parenting if parents are required to raise a child with a disability or difficulty in interaction. This is a result of parents using harsh discipline to control the child (Bugental, 2009).

Child abuse is, therefore, an example of intergenerational transmission of parenting, where the cycle of upbringing, including abuse, is passed down across generations, as shown in the cycle below.

There is a higher chance of child abuse when the parent is under stress and receive minimal social support (Cano & Vivian, 2003). Social factors contributing to the rate of abuse include:

Life changes, such as job loss, disrupting family functioning (Berger et al., 2011).

Low social-economic status and neighbourhoods lacking community services (Korbin, 2001)

A society which believes in the value of strong physical punishment and encourages such practices to raise children (Holden et al., 2011)

The abused child

Maltreated children exhibit problems such as

Physical injuries

Impaired brain development

Cognitive deficit

Psychological disorders

Explosive aggression

Lack of empathy

These problems can lead to intellectual deficits and academic difficulties (Burack et al., 2006; Cicchetti & Valentino, 2006; Keil & Price, 2009; Shonk & Cicchetti, 2001). Twin studies show that children exposed to a high level of domestic violence had lower average intelligence quotient (IQ) scores compared to their sibling (Koenen et al., 2003). These problems may lead to depression, anxiety and other psychological conditions during adulthood (Draper et al., 2008).

Child abuse resilience

Thankfully, it turns out that biology can naturally buffer the effects of abuse. Children with a gene composition known to be protective against depression, were found to be more resilient when experiencing maltreatment (Caspi et al., 2002). Another factor that can contribute to resilience is attachment to at least one non-abusive adult (Afifi & MacMillan, 2011).

Factors preventing child abuse

For child abuse victims, the challenge is to protect them through prosecuting and removing the child abuser. Child abuse victims may require childcare programs, developmental training and psychotherapy to help them overcome the deficits caused by the abuse (Leenarts et al., 2013). Abusive parents will require therapeutic, social and emotional support to prevent the reoccurrence of abuse.

Given the negative impact of child abuse, what are the possible methods to prevent it? The first step is to prevent a poor relationship. Partners are capable of playing a buffering role and improve relationships sensitivities and behaviours of insecurely attached individuals (Simpson & Overall, 2014). Partner buffering involves employing strategies such as

Exaggerating affections

Calming or soothing

Offering reassurances of commitment

Accommodating a partners needs or wishes

Matching the type of support to their partners preference; whether it is direct support for anxious partners or indirect support avoidant partners

These strategies can console couple interactions and reduce couple distress (Campbell et al., 2005; Simpson et al., 2007; Lemay & Dudley, 2011). The figure below shows the immediate and long-term outcomes if the partner buffering is successful, with the insecurely attached individual feeling more positive and satisfied with their relationship and are more likely to develop positive parenting skills over time.

Unfortunately, the partner who practices the buffering may become worn out, especially if the strategies fail continuously. This can lead to relationship dissatisfaction for both parties, leading to families at-risk for child maltreatment (Lemay & Dudley, 2011).

There are two possible approaches to help families at risk for child maltreatment:

Accessible Interactive Instructions:Use the arrow keys to navigate between tabs. After selecting a tab, use the Tab key to move to the tab content.

Parenting Program

Parents from at-risk families who practice harsh parenting can consult programs that teach positive parenting skills (Dodge & Coleman, 2009; Patterson et al., 2010). Training such as Pathway Triple Parenting Program has been shown to be effective in preventing child maltreatment (Prinz et al., 2009). Similar programs that include culturally relevant activity can be applied to Australian Indigenous families (Macvean et al., 2017)

Visitations

Another approach is to perform intensive home visiting to at-risk families (Howard & Brooks-Gunn, 2009). Visits from a family support worker focus on providing collaborative support and advice that assist in solving family difficulties (Fergusson et al., 2005).

Although these programs result in less physical punishment for the child, they, unfortunately, do not bear any effects on family factors such as maternal depression, substance abuse and family stress. It is possible that the best solution for family abuse is to provide at-risk families, with a comprehensive ecological approach that is tailored to the specific requirements of individual households (Fergusson et al., 2013).

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 594-600, take some time to read this section now.

Topic 1 : Conceptualising the self

In this topic, we look at the development and maintenance of self-concept and self-identity across the life span.

Introduction

This topic delves into some important life questions revolving around who you are, how you came to be the person you are in relation to your life story, and how that story is shaped by your characteristics, experiences and culture.

We consider continuity and change - how has your sense of self and personality changed or remained the same over the years, and how will it look 20 years from now?

We will frame these considerations with the developmental theories that help us to understand the process.

We also examine some important components of the self-concept as we look at the influence of sex, gender and sexuality throughout the life span

Basic concepts of self and personality

There are some important definitional terms to be aware of before we begin looking at the theoretical influences so we will start off with a short presentation of them here.

Personality

the organised combination of attributes, motives, values and behaviours unique to each individual

Dispositional Traits

are the relatively enduring dimensions or qualities of personality along which people differ.

Characteristic Adaptations

are the situation-specific and changeable aspects of personality:

motives, goals, and plans

schemata and self-conceptions

stage-specific concerns and coping mechanisms.

Narrative identities

the unique, integrative life stories that we construct about our pasts and futures

They provide us with an identity

They give our lives meaning

Self-concept

is made up of our perceptions of our unique attributes or traits.

Developmental theories of personality

There are three major theoretical approaches that have informed our understanding of how the self and personality develop we will briefly explore them here.

Trait Perspectives

Many people equate personality with dispositional traits - a set of relatively enduring, measurable dispositional trait dimensions, or continua (plural of continuum), along which individuals differ (are you sociable or unsociable; responsible or irresponsible; recalcitrant or compliant). We will look at two such perspectives here.

Five-Factor Model (OCEAN)

Perhaps one of the personality theories that is most recognised by researchers is the five-factor model (also known as Big Five or OCEAN). The different dimensions and definitions are described in the table below.

Dimension Basic definition

Openness to experience Curiosity and interest in variety vs preference for sameness

Conscientiousness Discipline and organisation vs lack of seriousness

Extroversion Sociability and outgoingness vs introversion

Agreeableness Compliance and cooperativeness vs suspiciousness

Neuroticism Emotional instability vs stability

HEXACO Model

In the activity below, you will get an opportunity to see how you score on the Five-Factor scale.

While the five-factor model is the widely accepted (and used) model of personality, other studies propose a six-factor model that better captures personality variations (Theilmenn et al., 2014). The six dimensions of the proposed HEXACO model and key characteristics can be seen in figure 5.1.1.

As you would have noticed, there is a fair bit of overlap between the HEXACO and Five-Factor model. The factors X, C, O in the HEXACO model directly overlaps the E, C, O factors in the Five-Factor model. Whereas the combination of the E and A factors in HEXACO map onto the N and A factors in the Five-Factor model. The only outstanding factor is HHonesty-humility.

Trait Perspectives

Many people equate personality with dispositional traits - a set of relatively enduring, measurable dispositional trait dimensions, or continua (plural of continuum), along which individuals differ (are you sociable or unsociable; responsible or irresponsible; recalcitrant or compliant). We will look at two such perspectives here.

Note

Slide 3 of 3

Research supports both the HEXACO and Five-Factor model in classifying and describing personality dimensions. There is also indication that these dimensions are universally applicable, as evidenced by people across cultures using the same (or similar) terms to describe themselves and other people (Ashton et al., 2014). However, it is important to highlight that the conceptualisation of personality dimensions may not be consistent across cultures, especially in collectivistic cultures (Church, 2010).

Church, A. T. (2010).Current Perspectives in the Study of Personality Across Cultures. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 441449.https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610375559

Psychoanalytic Perspective

In contrast to approaching personality from a dispositional and trait-like position, the psychoanalytic perspective highlights the importance of the environment in influencing the development of personalities.

Prominent psychoanalytic figures, such as Freud and Erikson, emphasised that personality is a product that is dependent on the resolution of conflict (or lack of) that occurs in different developmental stages, and closely involves the childs environment. However, there is some divergence between Freud and Erikson, as Freud believed that the first five years of life is when personality forms, whereas Erikson believed that personality changes continue through the life span. In particular, Eriksons theory holds a large influence into the exploration and formation of the identitythe overall sense of who one is, where they are heading and how they fit in societyduring adolescence.

Social Learning Perspective

Sitting at polar opposites to the trait perspective, social learning theorists such as Bandura, reject the notion that personalities are universal and enduring. Instead, they argue that people will adapt according to their environment and display behaviours that reflect different personalities. For example, an authoritarian manager at work might be a father that spoils his child at home. Thus, he displays different personalities in different context. Thus from a social learning perspective, personality is a set of behavioural tendencies shaped by interactions in specific social situations. In the case of Indigenous Australians, historical inheritance and collaborative cultural norms can have persistent influence in behaviours across contexts (Evan & Sinclair, 2016). Based on this perspective, we need to consider the context when trying to understand personality.

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 430-435, take some time to read this section now.

Sex, gender and sexuality

The question of whether you are male or female, man or a woman may be quite straightforward for those who have grown up living comfortably within biologically assigned gender categories and the social prescribed roles that accompany them but for many, the story is quite a different one. The concepts of sex and gender are far more complex than the simple malefemale, manwoman dichotomies so let us take some time to explore them here.

Sex

Biological sex is typically the referent when someone says sex. A persons sex status is determined by biological characteristics such as X-Y chromosomes, hormones, external genitalia, and internal reproductive organs.

The common categories for sex are male and female. However, there is a third categoryintersexthat consists of individuals who have both male and female biological characteristics or could not be identified as male or female at birth. The prevalence of intersex, though, is very low with an estimated 0.17 in 100 000 Australians (ABS, 2018a).

Gender

Unlike sex, which is biologically determined, gender on the other hand is a social construct. Male-female, boy-girl are the typical dyads found in many societies, however in some cultures, gender lies in a continuum. For example, in Asia, there is a wider range of recognised gender categories, and there exist terms, such as hijras, used to describe individuals who do not identify with either gender and are born with ambiguous genitalia (Bonvillain, 2012). Gender categories can change over time as well. In Australia, more gender categories have been included since the 2016 census, with an estimated 5.4% of Australians identifying themselves as gender diverse (ABS, 2018b).

Gender role-norm

Accompanying gender are expectations of the role each gender should fulfilgender role. For example, the belief that men should be the sole breadwinner and that women should care for children at home, was (and still is in some societies) one of the most common expectations. The set of activities, behaviours and responsibilities that are assigned to different gender, by society or culture, is referred to as gender-role norms.

Experience during infancy and childhood is important in shaping an individuals gender identity sense of an individuals own gender. For example, blue is for boys and pink is for girls, are associations we learn early on in life, and is often reinforced by caregivers, social groups, and society. This and many other similar associations create stereotypes associated with each gender (e.g., men are masculine and women are feminine).

These stereotypes, however, can result in gender dysphoriaan incongruence between an individuals assigned and expressed gender. Transgender, whereby an individual identifies as a gender that is opposite to their assigned sex or gender, would be an example gender dysphoria (Dvorak, 2012). Gender dysphoria can occur throughout the life span but has low prevalence rates (0.5-1.3%; Zucker, 2017). Research suggests that about 40% of gender identity is based in biology, whereas 60% is dependent on the environment (Heylens et al, 2012). Thus, it is imperative to understand gender identity from a biopsychosocial perspective (de Vries et al., 2014).

Sexuality

A persons sexual quality, which includes the capacity for sexual feelings, thoughts and behaviours, is the broad definition of sexuality. Sexual orientation is also part of sexuality and encompasses a persons romantic and sexual preferences, behaviour and identity. Sexual orientation, like gender, is best conceptualised as following a continuum, with experts recognizing five types of sexual identity (Vrangalova & Savin-Williams, 2012).

While sexual orientation is, on most part, stable for self-identified heterosexuals or homosexuals, that is not the case for those who identify as bisexual (Golombok et al., 2012; Savin-Williams et al., 2012). For example, gay or lesbian women have expressed cross-sex interest when they were younger, even though they did not conform to expected gender roles (Golombok et al., 2012; Lippa, 2008). Therefore, it seems that gay and lesbian adults, at an early age, were aware that they did not fit into traditional gender-role expectations. This also suggests that it would be hasty to infer sexual orientation based solely on early childhood behaviours.

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 435-439, take some time to read this section now.

Infancy & Childhood The emerging self

Children discover properties of their physical self, and distinguish between them and the rest of the world (Rochat, 2010; Thompson, 2006; Trevarthen, 2011). Additionally, they appreciate that they can act upon other people and objects. Children also realise that they are all separate individuals and have different perspectives (Thompson, 2006). Joint attentionwhereby two individuals share gaze on the same stimulusis a good display of childrens growing ability to self-identify (Mundy & Acra, 2006). Around 18 months, children begin to display self-representation (e.g., using personal pronouns such as me and I), and are able to use gender and age as distinguishing factors (Lewis & Ramsey, 2004).

Attachment and parenting styles can influence the self-concept as well. Infants with secure attachments are better able to recognise themselves in a mirror, and know more about their names and genders than do less securely attached toddlers (Pipp et al., 1992). Through authoritative parenting, conversations focusing on experiences and associated emotions helps children pull together their knowledge of themselves into a consistent self-concept (Bird & Reese, 2006).

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 440-457, take some time to read this section now.

Adolescent identity development

The search for identity involves grappling with many important questions: What kind of career do I want? What moral and political values can I call my own? What do I want out of my life?

According to Erikson, the adolescent stage is a time for exploring questions about how identity arises from self. During this period, adolescents are given a moratorium perioda responsibility free period where they are able to experiment and find themselvesby society to resolve their identify crisis (Erikson, 1968). During this time, adolescents may start experimenting with drugs, changing study courses or relationships. Presumably, entering the moratorium status is a good sign. According to Erikson, if the individual can raise questions and answer them, then he/she will move to the identity achievement status (see table 5.1.1). However, modern day society can make the moratorium period extremely challenging given the number of options that are available to adolescents.

Following the psychoanalytic tradition, Marcia (1966) expanded on Eriksons theory and hypothesised that adolescents can fall into four different identity statuses (see table 5.1.1). According to this model, the key determinants of identity classification lies in whether the adolescent has experienced a crisis, and whether a resolution (or commitment) is achieved, and an individual can have different identity statuses for different domains (e.g., religion, school, home).

No Commitment made Commitment made

No crisis experienced Diffusion statusThe individual has not yet thought about or resolved identity issues and has failed to chart directions in life.Example: I havent really thought much about religion, and I guess I dont know what I believe exactly. Foreclosure statusThe individual seems to know whom he or she is but has latched onto an identity prematurely with little thought.Example: My parents are Baptists, and Im a Baptist; its just the way I grew up.

Crisis experienced Moratorium statusThe individual is experiencing an identity crisis, actively raising questions and seeking answers.Example: Im in the middle of evaluating my beliefs and hope that Ill be able to figure out whats right for me. Ive become sceptical about some of the things I learned, and I am looking into other faiths for answers. Identity achievement statusThe individual has resolved his/her identity crisis and made commitments to particular goals, beliefs and values.Example: I really did some soul-searching about my religion and other religions, too, and finally know what I believe and what I dont.

Adulthood continuity and discontinuity

As people grow older, do pre-existing personalities continue into adulthood or do they change? Research suggests that there is both continuity and discontinuity during adulthood.

Continuity

Longitudinal research has shown that personality rankings within a group will largely stay consistent throughout the life span. For example, if you are the most extroverted amongst your peers in your 20s, then you will likely be the most extroverted amongst the same group of peers well into your 90s. This finding is the same across both five-factor and HEXACO dimensions (McCrae & Costa, 2008; Milojev & Sibley, 2014).

Both nature and nurture play a part in ensuring continuity. Genetic makeup is partly responsible, but the environment and genetic-environment interaction plays a large role as well. Experiences in childhood, relative stability of an environment, and the tendency to choose an environment that reinforces the personality, are all reasons in explaining the role environment plays in ensuring continuity.

Discontinuity

Even though an individual may consistently be the most extroverted person amongst the peers, it seems that his/her extroversion scores fluctuate over the years. In a group of studies based on the Five-Factor model, there seem to be certain trends for different personality dimensions. For example, extroversion increases through midlife but decreases in old age, and openness to experiences increase in adulthood but plateaus or decreases after (Roberts et al., 2003; Roberts et al., 2013). Similar findings were seen in a study using the HEXACO model (Milojev & Sibley, 2014).

In a similar fashion to continuity, both nature and nurture are involved in the discontinuity of personality dimension scores. Biological factors, such as those related to disease, can change a persons temperament and mood (McCrae & Costa, 2003). Environmental changes, such as significant life events, changes in social roles, can also result in personality changes. Lastly, the fit between the environment and the persons current personality can determine if the changes occur. A good fit would result in stable personality, whereas a poor fit would result in change (with either the person or environment; Roberts & Robins, 2004).

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 466-478, take some time to read this section now.

Identity in Indigenous Groups

For members of minority ethnic and racial groups, more emphasis is put on exploring and committing to who they are ethnically or racially (Umaa-Taylor et al., 2014).

For Aboriginal Australian youths, the importance they attach to culture and traditions, and their sense of belonging to an Aboriginal community, are particularly salient in the development of their racial identity (Hopkins, 2014; Kickett, 2015).

The greater the saliency of ethnicity and race to an individuals life and self-concept, the greater the likelihood that they will explore their ethnic-racial identity (Kiang, 2010; Yip, 2014).

During childhood, parents socialise children into the Aboriginal cultural traditions; prepare them to live in a culturally diverse society and to deal with prejudice in a positive manner (i.e. not breeding mistrust). (Hughes et al., 2006; Neblett, 2012; Neblett, 2008; Umaa-Taylor, 2006).

In adolescence, many Indigenous youths move into the moratorium and achievement identity statuses in the domain of ethnic identity (Seaton et al., 2006). Those who grew up in a homogeneous environment with little interaction with other ethnic and racial groups tend not to reflect on their ethnic identity until adulthood (Phinney, 2006).

Topic 2 : Theory of mind

Introduction

In this topic, we explore the way that people process and respond to a variety of social and moral issues.

We begin by looking at the developmental changes in the way that we think about people and their behaviour, and the way that our perspectives change to incorporate the views of others. We then look at moral development and social behaviour focusing on the way that we determine right from wrong and the way that we negotiate our way through moral dilemmas. We will briefly consider the way that empathy, guilt and other emotions play a part in determining moral standards and how it is that some people behave more morally than others.

Watch: Theory of mind (ToM)

Theory of mind refers to the ability to think about and differentiate between the mental states of oneself and others. This also includes the ability to understand that others might hold different beliefs than oneself. For example, a child who has developed a theory of mind would be aware that other people might not like cheese as much as he/she does.

One of the most widely used tasks to determine a childs development of the theory of mind are false beliefs task such as the Sally-Anne Task and the Smarties Task take some time to watch the video below to see what is involved in these tasks:

Closed captions available

Source: YouTube. Adam. (2013, Mar 11).Theory of mind - Smarties task and Sally-Anne Task.[Video File]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41jSdOQQpv0One thing evident in this video is that the children do not possess an explicit understanding of Theory of Mind, until they are approximately 4 years old. Recent works, however, using simpler false-belief tasks, have demonstrated that theory of mind actually begins developing at a much earlier age, and continues throughout the life span. For example, in late primary school, many children are still mastering second-order belief statements such as Mary thinks that her lamb thinks that she loves it (Miller, 2012). Children with Autism, however, experience mindblindnessa delay in theory of mind development, which makes behaviours of others seem unpredictable or even scary to them, and therefore hard for children with autism to empathise.

Read more about theory of mind development in children with autism here:

The influence of nature on the development of theory of mind

Developing a theory of mind requires a certain level of neurological and cognitive maturation. Children across cultures develop a theory of mind and progress fromdesire psychologytobelief-desire psychologyat a similar age (Tardif, 2000).

Desire Psychology

Children are able to talk about what they want, and are able to use desires to explain their own and other peoples behaviours.

Belief- Desire Psychology

Children understand that behaviours are driven by desires, and that people believe that certain actions lead to the fulfilment of those desires.

Neuropsychologists have identified the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dMPFC) and the right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) of the brain as uniquely involved in thinking about peoples beliefs (Sabbagh, 2006). These brain areas are observed to be active across all age group (children, adolescents and adults) when performing false-belief tasks (Liu et al., 2009; Saxe et al., 2012; Sebastian et al., 2012).

Figure 5.2.1.Mirror Neurons (Sigelman, C., et al, 2018)

The neurons within these brain regions have been termed mirror neurons. Mirror neurons are activated both when an individual sees an action being performed and when the individual him/herself performs the same action (Iacoboni, 2009). For example, the same neurons will fire when Mary sees her friend hugging a lamb, as when she hugs the lamb herself.

Based on an individuals own experience, mirror neurons allow individuals to quickly infer another persons mental state. For example, having experienced sadness herself, mirror neurons provide Mary with the biological capability to infer that her friend (John) is feeling sad, when she sees John frowning.

The influence of nurture on the development of theory of mind.

The development of the theory of mind not only requires biological capacity but also environmental stimulation.

Evidence advocating the role of nurture indicates that children construct their theories of mind through conversations with their parents and other children (Nelson et al., 2003; Doherty, 2009; Thompson, 2006). For example, children who are deaf and have parents who are able to communicate with them through sign language, develop a theory of mind in a similar manner as children with normal hearing. However, if their parents are unable to converse with them through sign language then their theory of mind development becomes hindered. These children, for example, would still struggle with false-belief tasks even when they are 10 years old (Peterson & Wellman, 2009). Therefore, parents play an essential role in the theory of mind development of the child.

Last week, we saw how parents can establish a secure attachment with their child through sensitive parenting. Being sensitive to their childs needs and perspective enables parents to support their childs theory of mind development (Thompson, 2012). More importantly, though, children whose parents use more elaborate and appropriate speech about their childs desires or mental states, in their daily conversations, will tend to develop more advanced theory-of-mind skills, mental-state language and better performance on emotion-related tasks (Peterson & Slaughter, 2003; Taumoepeau & Ruffman, 2008).

The influence of nurture on the development of theory of mind.

The development of the theory of mind not only requires biological capacity but also environmental stimulation.

Evidence advocating the role of nurture indicates that children construct their theories of mind through conversations with their parents and other children (Nelson et al., 2003; Doherty, 2009; Thompson, 2006). For example, children who are deaf and have parents who are able to communicate with them through sign language, develop a theory of mind in a similar manner as children with normal hearing. However, if their parents are unable to converse with them through sign language then their theory of mind development becomes hindered. These children, for example, would still struggle with false-belief tasks even when they are 10 years old (Peterson & Wellman, 2009). Therefore, parents play an essential role in the theory of mind development of the child.

Last week, we saw how parents can establish a secure attachment with their child through sensitive parenting. Being sensitive to their childs needs and perspective enables parents to support their childs theory of mind development (Thompson, 2012). More importantly, though, children whose parents use more elaborate and appropriate speech about their childs desires or mental states, in their daily conversations, will tend to develop more advanced theory-of-mind skills, mental-state language and better performance on emotion-related tasks (Peterson & Slaughter, 2003; Taumoepeau & Ruffman, 2008).

Topic 3 : Moral development

Introduction

Morality involves the ability to distinguish right from wrong, to act on this distinction, and feel the emotions associated with the thoughts and actions. An individual will experience positive emotions, such as pride and self-satisfaction, when doing the morally right thing and when witnessing moral acts. On the other hand, an individual will experience negative emotions such as shame and guilt, when doing something that is morally wrong (Tangney et al., 2007).

In general, there are three basic components of morality:

Cognitive

individuals make moral decision based on social-cognitive skills such as the theory of mind and perspective taking.

Behavioural

reflects how individuals behave when experiencing the temptation to cheat or when called upon to help a person in need.

Emotional

feelings that surround right or wrong actions and feelings that motivate moral thoughts or actions

Children who have mastered the theory of mind can think more maturely about morality and tend to have more advanced social skills and adjustments (Miller, 2012). However, it is important to note that the theory of mind only makes up a single component of morality. It is possible for children who have mastered the theory of mind not to display moral behaviour, especially in situations when they have trouble differentiating right and wrong behaviour, and when they are emotionally conflicted. For example, bullies are good liars often adept at mind-reading but act immorally (Talwar & Lee, 2008).

Another important factor in the development of morality is empathy. It is part of the emotional component and involves the ability to experience another persons feelings (Hoffman, 2008). A person who is able to empathise with someone who is suffering, would not only be able to take the other persons perspective but also share their pain. Empathy can, therefore, motivate prosocial behaviour, such as helping others, making a stand against bullying and reduce racists attitude (Gair, 2017). At the same time, empathy can prevent antisocial behaviour, which often involves harming other people through lying, stealing and aggression. We will consider antisocial behaviour later in Topic 4.

Now, we will explore the development of morality from the perspectives of psychoanalytic and cognitive theories.

Evolutionary Theory

The focus of evolutionary theorists on morality lies in how it can help with adaptation to the environment, and that morality and prosocial behaviour are rooted in human nature.

A few ideas have been put forth based on this premise.

Firstly, it has been argued that prosocial behaviours were evolved because it led to higher chances of survival, as it allowed people to do things that they would not be able to otherwise (e.g., hunting bigger animals for food, protect family members).

Next, evolutionary theorists believe that altruistic tendencies were important as it could lead to reciprocation of help rendered. Thus, if I help you now, when I meet danger in the future, you would be likely to return the favour, which increases my chances of survival.

Lastly, evolutionary theorists believe that humans are prosocial by nature, and will readily engage in a group or collaborate with others (Tomasello & Vaish, 2013). The ability to gain a theory of mind by infants and children, is an indication of the capacity to understand and outwit rivals, but also to share intentions and pursue common goals. Both of which can increase the odds of survival.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freuds psychoanalytic theory proposes that the superego (i.e., conscience) ensures any plans formed, based on the negotiation between the ego (i.e., rationality) and id (i.e., desire), are morally acceptable.

The superego essentially governs the individuals conscience and evokes negative emotions, such as shame or guilt, if the individual believes that he/she is doing something immoral.

Freud believes that the superego forms during the phallic stage (3-6 years). Presumably, children experience an emotional conflict over their love for their other-sex parent, which is resolved by making the same-sex parents moral standards as their own.

While there is a lack of support for Freuds view of morality development, his main themes have endured;Moral emotions are an important part of morality.

Early relationship with parents contributes to moral development.

Children must internalise a moral standard, in order to behave morally even in the absence of an authoritative figure.

Social Cognitive Theory

The focus of Banduras Social Cognitive Theory lies in the behavioural component of morality. According to Bandura.

moral behaviour is learned through observational learning, reinforcement and punishment.

people monitor and evaluate their own actions.

Individuals, within themselves, disapprove wrong actions and approve responsible actions. Self-regulatory mechanisms enable individuals to exert self-control, inhibit urges to misbehave, and stay in line with their internalised standards of moral behaviour.

However, social cognitive theorists also believe that situational factors are strong influences on moral behaviours so, moral performances are not always reflective of an individuals internalised moral standards. Watch this brief video to see how children regulate behaviour based on the observation of others.

Closed captions not available.Source: Youtube. I-LABS UW (2014, Oct 7). Toddlers regulate their behavior to avoid making adults angry. [Video File].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FC4qRD1vn8Cognitive Developmental Theory

Similar to cognitive development, cognitive scientists believe that the development of morality progresses through universal stages, with each stage having a consistent way of thinking, but distinct from the prior or following stages.

The main interest for cognitive developmental theorists is the process involved in deciding our action, not the action or decision itself.

For example, a young child and an adult can both decide that stealing is wrong, but the reason that governs their decision may be different. The young child may believe that stealing is wrong because it breaks the law. On the other hand, the adult may decide that stealing is wrong because it can incite chaos in our society.

Piagets stages of moral development and Kohlbergs stages of moral reasoning are two key cognitive theories in understanding the development of morality. Both theorists believe that moral reasoning depends on the individuals social-cognitive development, such as being able to take different perspectives and gaining the theory of mind. These theories posit that social interactions also play a role in moral development.

Piagets stages of moral development

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Pre-moral period

During the preschool years (before 6 years old), children show little awareness or understanding of moral rules

Heteronomous morality (6-10 years old)

Children take rules seriously and believe that they are handed down by authoritative figures (e.g. parents). They will judge rule violations as wrong based on the extent of damage done. They will not pay attention to whether the violator had good or bad intentions. They will see a well-intentioned boy who broke 15 cups by accident to be naughtier than an ill-intentioned boy who broke 1 cup on purpose.

Autonomous morality (10-11 years old)

Children begin to appreciate that rules are agreements between individuals, and that these rules can change through a consensus between the parties involved. Children in this stage pay more attention to the intention of the person, instead of just the consequence of an action. They will see a misbehaving boy who broke 1 cup on purpose to be naughtier than a well-intentioned boy who broke 15 cups by accident.

Kohlbergs stages of moral reasoning

Kohlberg posits that moral development progresses through a universal and invariant sequence of three broad moral reasoning levels, with each level composed of two distinct stages. By mastering each successive stage, the individual gains the ability to think about moral issues in a more complex manner (Carpendale, 2000).

Preconventional Morality

Moral reasoning has an egocentric focus on personal welfare. Rules are external to the individual rather than internal. An individual conforms to rules imposed by the authority to avoid punishment or to obtain personal rewards.

Stage 1: Punishment-and-obedience orientation

The morality of an action depends on its consequences. Individuals may not consider an act wrong if there is no punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental hedonism

An individual conforms to rules in order to gain rewards and satisfy personal needs. Motivation for showing concerns to others is in hope of reciprocal benefit.

Conventional Morality

Moral reasoning includes taking the perspective of other people into consideration. The individual has now internalised many moral values. The individual obeys authoritative rules first to win their approval and then to maintain social order.

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Stage 3: good boy/man or good girl/woman morality

An individual considers correct morality as what pleases or helps others. The individual will consider other peoples feelings in making moral decisions. Individual morality at this stage involves reciprocity. The most important rule is doing unto others what you want to be done unto you.

Postconventional Morality

Moral reasoning requires the ability to coordinate multiple perspectives and determine what is right from every persons perspective. The individual defines what is right in terms of a broad principle of justice that may include authoritarian law. The individual now recognises that some laws may be inappropriate according to their moral principles.

Stage 5: Morality of contract, individual rights and democratically accepted laws

This stage involves understanding the purpose of the law. The individual additionally believes that the law is an expression of the will of the majority, and maximises social welfare. The individual may call for democratic changes in a law that compromises basic rights.

Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of conscience

The individual defines morality based on self-generated principles that are broad and universal in application. Individuals determine abstract principles about respect and rights that are applicable to everyone. When the individual faces a moral dilemma, he/she will consider not only the individuals but larger social groups/institutions that could be affected by the decision. The individual can then propose a solution that is justified by all individuals. This stage of moral reasoning is extremely difficult to achieve.

Moral reasoning

Support for Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning and moral behaviour is weak. This weak relationship is due to moral behaviour being determined by other factors beyond moral reasoning, such as cultural and gender differences. One factor that has garnered significant amount of interest, but is also ignored in Kohlbergs model, is emotions (and intuition). Consider the scenarios below:

Switch dilemma

a runaway trolley is headed for five people who will be killed if it proceeds on its present course. The only way to save them is to hit a switch that will turn the trolley onto an alternate set of tracks where it will kill one person instead of five. Will you turn the trolley to save five people at the expense of one?

Footbridge dilemma

a runaway trolley threatens to kill five people. You are standing next to a large stranger on a footbridge that looks over the tracks. The footbridge is in between the oncoming trolley and five people.

The only way to save the five people is to push the stranger off the bridge, onto the tracks below. He will die, but his body will stop the trolley from reaching the five people. Will you save the five others by pushing the stranger off to his death?

Research indicates that when presented with this scenario, most people would hit the switch but would not push the stranger off the bridge, even though pushing the stranger would result in the same outcome as hitting the switch (i.e., five lives are saved).

The reason for this apparent contradiction is because the act of killing a person with ones own hands evokes a strong emotional response. These emotion-based intuitive processes activate different brain areas compared to when a person engages in rational cognition.

This finding suggests that people might use different process when making moral decisions1) an emotion-based intuitive process, and 2) a more deliberate cognitive approachand form the basis of the dual-process model (Greene, 2008). Watch the video below to learn more about the findings from these moral dilemma tasks.

Closed captions available.Source: TED-Ed (2017 Jan 13). Would you sacrifice one person to save five? - Eleanor Nelsen. [Video File].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yg16u_bzjPEReligiousness and spirituality

Religiousness is defined as sharing the beliefs and participating in the practices of a religion. Spirituality involves a quest for ultimate meaning and a connection with something greater than oneself (Nelson, 2009).

For many people, religious and spiritual values guide their moral thinking and behaviour. Religious commitment, if translated to strong moral identity, encourages empathy, prosocial tendency, sense of social connection and shared vision that fosters moral behaviour and positive development (Ebstyne et al., 2004; Hardy et al., 2012). It has also been positively associated with maintaining good family relationships, health and wellbeing (Wink & Dillion, 2008).

On the cultural side, religion provides a sense of belonging in terms of racial-ethnic-cultural identity, which is a significant positive influence on Indigenous Australians (Neville et al., 2014).

Adults with religious and spiritual orientations have higher levels of self-esteem, optimism, and personal growth (Kaldor et al., 2004). Religiousness and spirituality are correlated with good physical health and prosocial behaviour in later life (Nelson, 2009). However, it is worth noting that religious conversions during times of stress may have little impact on wellbeing. On the other hand, maintaining faith may have important health and recovery values (Sibley & Bulbulia, 2012).

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 530-536, take some time to read this section now.

Topic 4 : Antisocial behaviour

Introduction

While most people develop a strong moral identity and value prosocial behaviour, there are some individuals who will invariably practice antisocial behaviours.

In the final topic of the week we consider the development of antisocial behaviour and aggression. First off, we talk about prosocial behaviour, which is the opposite of antisocial behaviour.

Prosocial behaviours

According to evolutionary theorists, people are not naturally selfish or egocentric, and prosocial behaviours are part of our evolutionary heritage (Tomasello, 2009).

At an early age, children display spontaneous helping behaviour, cooperate with playmates, and display greater happiness when they give compared to receiving (Aknin et al., 2012; Callaghan et al., 2011; Warneken & Tomasello, 2007). Empathy is an essential factor in prosocial behaviour, and it is naturally present in people. Soon after birth, infants display a rudimentary level of empathy (e.g., crying when other babies cry), and start showing more complex forms of empathy in later life (e.g., providing verbal or physical comfort, feeling sense of injustice).

Aggression and antisocial behaviours

Physical aggression or behaviour that harms another person physically, appears to come naturally to humans, starting as soon as babies can hit, bite, or push others whereas verbal aggression begins almost as soon as infants utter their first words. Infants are less likely than older children to harm intentionally though, their goal is often to get a toy they want or to defend a toy they have played with (Hay, 2011).

Aggression is an integration of biological factors, individual psychological factors and sociocultural factors (Dodge, 2009; Guo, 2011).

Biological factors

Genetic differences are estimated to account for 40% of antisocial behaviour (Rhee & Waldman, 2002). However, sociocultural and contextual factors can provide some resilience against an individuals natural behaviour. We will investigate the interaction between nature and nurture in genetics that contribute to moral development.

NATURE

Males are more aggressive than females across cultures and even species (Australia Institute of Criminology, 2013; Lansford et al., 2012).

Aggression enables adolescent males to compete successfully for mates and pass their genes to future generation (Buss, 2012). At the genetic level, the monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) gene contributes to ones ability to control their temper. Some individuals who possess a gene variant resulting in low MAO-A activity, have more impulsive tendencies and personality traits associated with aggressive delinquent and criminal behaviour (Niv & Baker, 2013).

Researchers are now exploring the epigenetic effects of harsh, stressful early experiences on the expression of certain genes that govern aggressive behaviour (Tremblay, 2011)

NURTURE

Children with certain genetic traits may become antisocial if they receive neglectful parenting or are physically abused (Kuny-Slock & Hudziak, 2013).

Children with the low MAO-A gene variant and are maltreated/abused will, more readily consider hostile intentions to others if provoked, lose control of their anger, and lash out compulsively. These behaviours, in return, can evoke negative and coercive parenting from biological and adoptive parents, which further strengthen these childrens aggressive tendencies, and forming a vicious cycle.

Thus, having a positive environmental influence can minimise the risk of antisocial behaviour for children with low MAO-A gene variant (Guo, 2011).

Individual psychological factors

Disengagementis the main psychological factor influencing antisocial behaviours.

An individual with a prosocial moral self learns to associate negative emotions such as guilt with violating rules. However, those who avoid punishing themselves when engaging in immoral behaviour, even when they are aware that their actions are immoral, are practicingmoral disengagement.

An example is a salesman who feels underpaid and mistreated by his employer. He may convince himself that stealing from his employer is justified.

Sociocultural factors

The main socio-cultural factor is moral socialisationinculcating morality through social situations and interactionsand is an important factor in reducing antisocial behaviour.

For example, parents can teach a child about rules when a violation occurs, and reinforce those rules in the future. It is through such moral learning experiences that children come to understand and internalise moral rules. Mary learns that her actions have consequences, some good, some bad. Mary can also learn moral rules by watching similar interactions in her companions (Thompson et al., 2006).

Parenting and moral socialisation

Many moral developmental theories while useful, tend to underestimate the importance of parents and education in moral development (Walker et al.,2000). For example, some toddlers engage in more physical aggression, and their high rates of aggressive behaviour can be traced to environmental factors such as, harsh parenting or a depressed, emotionally unavailable parent. However, with responsible parenting, a child can learn to control their aggressive urges better and decrease anti-social behaviour (Tremblay, 2011).

Forming a secure parent-infant attachment using authoritative parenting styles is the best way to begin moral socialisation. The caregiver and the child need to establish an emotionally positive and cooperative relationship in which child and caregiver care about each other and are sensitive to the needs of each other (Kochanska et al., 2009). A mutually responsive orientation between parents and child, makes children trust their caregivers and want to comply with their parents, and adopt their parents values and standards. Parents who are responsive to their infants are, therefore, more likely to raise children who are responsive to them.

This mutual responsiveness allows parents to practice authoritative parenting more readily, providing them with more opportunities to discuss the emotional consequences of their childs behaviour. As a result, parents can foster moral development by discussing with their child the good and bad effects of different behaviours on others (Thompson, 2012). Watch the video below on a discussion about how reading stories can help children learn moral values.

Closed captions available.Source: YouTube. Wall Street Journal (2014, Jun 30). How Do Children Learn Moral Behavior? [Video File].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r23HD8wURF8Discipline and moral development

Moral socialisation involves fostering empathy, which is a key motivator of moral behaviour development (Hoffman, 1970). Discipline, while able to have negative consequences, can be used to foster empathy. There are three major approaches to using discipline, and we will discuss them using the following scenario:

You (the parent) saw Mary drop her lamb doll in a bucket of water. What will you do?

Love withdrawalHow could you do something like that? I cant stand to look at you!

Love withdrawal includes withholding attention, affection or approval after a child misbehaves. The withdrawal creates anxiety by threatening a loss of positive reinforcements from parents. Love withdrawal as a means of expressing disappointment in Marys behaviour can be effective on occasions. However, it does make Mary worry that her parents love can be withdrawn at any time (Patrick & Gibbs, 2007).

Power assertionGo to your room this minute; youre going to get it, young lady!

The parent uses punishments such as the power to threaten, chastise, spank, and take away privileges. Power assertion does not foster empathy and can produce unwanted consequences such as anxiety and aggression. Frequent use of power assertion is associated with moral immaturity. In extreme cases, if you physically abuse Mary, she will feel less guilt and will engage in immoral behaviours such as stealing more frequently (Koenig et al., 2004). This decrease in guilt occurs even if you use less severe power tactics, such as physical restraints and commands, to keep her from engaging in prohibited acts (Kochanska et al., 2003).

Induction:Mary, look how scared your little lamb is. You could have drowned her. You know how sad wed be if she died and you dont have a lamb.

Parents explain to the child why the behaviour is wrong and needs to be changed. Parents provide rationales or explanations, and focus the childs attention on the consequences of wrongdoing to others (such as lambs).

Induction is often positively associated with childrens moral maturity than either love withdrawal or power assertion. Power assertion is the least effective approach (Patrick & Gibbs, 2012). The reason is perhaps that induction breeds empathy (Hoffman, 2000). Through empathy, Mary can contemplate how her actions will harm her lamb. This contemplation keeps her from harming others in the future. She may even empathise with her lamb in distress and will be motivated to help it.

Interestingly, mild power assertion tactics, such as a forceful no, a reprimand or taking away of privileges, can occasionally be useful if they do not arouse fear and if it motivates Mary to pay close attention to the inductions that follow. These power assertions work best in the context of a loving and mutually responsive parent-child relationship. Moral development, therefore, requires a blend of frequent induction, occasional power assertion and much affection (Hoffman, 2000).

Information processing model for aggression in adolescents

An alternate explanation to individual aggression is the way that the individual processes and interprets cues in frustrating situations (Dodge, 2006).

Highly aggressive adolescents show deficient or biased information processing. Many aggressive youths act impulsively and respond automatically based on their experiences. These youths tend to see the world as a hostile place and assume that any harm to them is deliberate rather than accidental (Orobio de Castro et al., 2002), and may act in retaliation against others who they deem are against them (Gibbs, 2013).

These highly antisocial youths often grow up in a coercive family environment where power struggles within family members (where each member is trying to control the other through negative, coercive tactics) are commonplace (Patterson, 2008). Their parents try to stop misbehaviour by threatening, yelling and hitting. In turn, these youths learn that they can get their parents to disregard them by ignoring requests, throwing temper tantrums and being difficult. As both parties make use of coercive tactics, the parents gradually lose control, the child becomes uncontrollable and learns to resolve problems by relying on aggression.

The aggressive child often ends up performing poorly in school, is often rejected by others. This in turn leads to them becoming involved with a peer group made of unpopular youths, who reinforce each others delinquency. The figure below shows how poor parenting and discipline in the early years of life, leads to delinquency later on.

Figure 5.4.1. Pattersons model of antisocial behaviour development (Adapted from: Patterson, DeBarshye, & Ramsey, 1989, p.524)

According to this model, antisocial adults are likely to contribute to the intergenerational transmission of aggression. Young adolescents in a coercive family environment are at a high risk of becoming a harsh, coercive parent who raises another generation of aggressive children, whom themselves practices the same coercive style on the next generation and so on (Dogan et al., 2007).

Bullying

Bullying is a type of aggressive behaviour that involves repeated harm, through words or actions, on weaker peers who do not or cannot defend themselves (Smith, 2001). Bullying behaviour includes:

Physical bullying

such as shoving and kicking

2) Verbal bullying

such as teasing and taunting

3) Social exclusion

such as rejection from social groups and activities

4) Indirect bullying

such as spreading rumour/lies and turning others against an individual

5) Cyberbullying

such as posting embarrassing photos and spreading rumours on social media

Cyberbullying is currently one of the most prevalent forms of bullying, even more so than school-based bullying. It provides the individual with a sense of power, and anonymity, allowing the bully to perceive an enhanced sense of power but with moral disengagement (Udris, 2014).

Cyberbullying involves not only those who would typically engage in bullying behaviour in a physical setting, but also those who typically would not engage in these behaviours (Antoniadou et al., 2015). Its far-reaching effects through the internet are associated with higher rates of suicidal ideation, substance abuse, conduct issues, anxiety and depression (Kowalski et al., 2014). The figure below depicts the percentage breakdown of different types of bullying in Australia.

Figure 5.4.2. Percentage of different types of bullying in Australia (Fell, 2019)

According to Fell (2019), research reveals shocking new statistics of Australias bullying crisis:

Three in five Australian students have experienced bullyingBullying is detrimental to the victim. Children who are victims of bullying can experience negative outcomes such as delinquency, anxiety, depression, stress-related headaches, pain, low self-esteem, self-harm and suicide (Balanovic et al., 2016).

Academic performance of victims also decreases, and in schools with high levels of bullying this leads to higher dropout rates, even when controlling for other factors such as school size and socioeconomic status (Cornell et al., 2012).

Schools have encouraged students to report or intervene in bullying (Beane, 2009). However, teacher and parents have difficulty identify bullying, and children who do not have strong attachments to their parents or teachers are less willing to report bullying behaviour (Lodge & Baxter, 2013).

Current bullying prevention programs, therefore, do not focus on decreasing bullying behaviour but building resilience in children to cope with bullying and the capacity of teachers to respond effectively to bullying (Merrell et al., 2008).

One intervention for bullying, which addresses multiple factors including personal, culture and family, is the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (Olweus & Limber, 2010). The program focuses on schools, classes, individuals and the community. The program includes staff and teacher training, regular class discussions on bullying, talks with bullies and school-community partnerships.

Although these programs generally show very small effects on the incidence of bullying and victimisation, they have shown modest effects for enhancing the victims social competencies, self-esteem and peer acceptance; as well as teachers confidence in responding to bullying (Ttofi & Farrington, 2011).

Aggression to delinquency

Fortunately, most adolescents who engage in aggressive behaviour and other antisocial acts do not eventually grow up to be antisocial adults (Odgers et al., 2008).

Most adolescents behave antisocially partly in response to peer pressure. They then tend to outgrow these behaviours in adulthood, which is why crime rates rise to a peak during adolescence and then fall in most societies (Tremblay, 2011). However, those with childhood anti-social behaviour experience relationship problems and may have difficulty gaining employment as adults (McGee et al., 2011).

From a cognitive development point of view, the maturation of the prefrontal cortex of the brain that continues into the mid-20s, results in better control of impulses and long-term consequences consideration (Giedd et al., 2013).

There are indications that theory-of-mind deficits linked to maturation of the prefrontal cortex may also be evident in conduct-disordered youth (Poletti & Adzenatto, 2013).

Unfortunately, a few adolescents with aggressive behaviour would become involved in serious antisocial conducts such as physical assault, rape, robbery and fraud.

Amongst children who engage in acts such as hurting animals and other children, antisocial behaviour is especially prevalent. The consequences of their misbehaviour accumulate, and these children are considered as juvenile delinquents. They will leave school early, be involved in troubled and abusive relationships, have difficulty keeping jobs and break laws as they get older (Huesmann et al., 2009).

Some of these antisocial adolescents might be diagnosed with conduct disordera persistent pattern of violating the rights of others or age-appropriate societal norms through behaviours such as fighting, bullying and cruelty (American Psychological Association, 2013). These youths may display a pattern of limited prosocial behaviour, in which they are less likely to show empathy and concern for others in distress. They consequently feel little guilt or remorse about their actions and would commit illegal acts even when they are capable of conventional moral reasoning (Gibbs, 2013).

Prevention of antisocial behaviour

Both, the information processing model and Kohlbergs theory of moral development have been applied in moral education for youths showing signs of antisocial behaviour. These programs aim to improve youth social information processing skills, moral or character education. These programs also include parent education (Gibbs, 2013; Guerra & Slaby, 1990; Patterson, 2005). Parent education aims to train parents in developing positive behaviour management techniques.

Some communities are more likely to breed aggression than others. Rates of aggression and antisocial behaviour are much higher in lower socioeconomic neighbourhoods and communities (McGee et al., 2011). Thus, in addition to changing the child, another strategy for preventing antisocial behaviour is to change the childs environment (Jaffee et al., 2012). This strategy involves providing positive parenting to children at the start of infancy or toddlerhood, followed by comprehensive strategies throughout childhood and adolescence, and across social environments, such as home, community and schools (Dodge et al., 2006).

For example, family-centred interventions for children from conception to five years that focus on building strength in parenting, health and culture have been shown to help children succeed and thrive (Craven et al., 2016; McCalman et al., 2017).

Yet another prevention approach is to help children develop in positive directions. The Positive Youth Development (PYD) is an approach that emphasises developing the strength of youths. The program helps youths develop positive identities, through building their academic abilities, self-esteem, character, familial bonds, empathy and prosocial behaviour (Lerner et al., 2009). The strength of cultural groups, such as family values, can also be incorporated in PYD programs (Kenyon & Hanson, 2012).

Your text contains information on this topic in pages 519-530, take some time to read this section now.

Topic 1 : Developmental psychopathologies

Introduction

Each stage of our life provides us with different challenges, which we need to cope with. For some though there are challenges, which they simply cannot master or see their way through successfully.

In this topic, we are going to look briefly at some of the psychological challenges that we tend to find at each stage of the life span. We will take a developmental perspective by considering the origins and course of maladaptive behaviour across the life span.

We will examine abnormal behaviour in comparison to normal development and briefly investigate the cultural, social and developmental norms that influence the recognition of abnormal behaviours. The topic will conclude as we investigate risk and protective factors that give rise to abnormal or healthy psychological development.

What do we consider abnormal?

In order to determine abnormality, trained clinicians rely upon broad criteria such as statistical deviance, maladaptiveness and personal distress. All three of these broad areas need to be considered when differentiating abnormality from normality.

Accessible interactive instructions:Use the arrow keys to navigate between tabs. After selecting a tab, use the Tab key to move to the tab content.

Statistical Deviance

Abnormality may be determined by problematic behaviours that are outside the range for what might be considered normal. Where some of the behaviour might be expected within a given population, the deviance threshold might be determined by an increased frequency or intensity of the behaviour beyond that expected within the population. In some cases though, statistical deviance might be determined by a single instance of the behaviour. There is no agreed upon cut-off point in determining abnormality.

MaladaptivenessAbnormality may be determined by behaviour that interferes with adaptation or functioning in important areas of life, and/or poses a threat to the individual or others.

Personal Distress

Abnormality may be determined by an individuals level of felt distress

Note that statistical deviance, maladaptiveness and personal distress may not always be in concert. For example, mania (abnormal and persistently elevated or expansive mood) may not cause personal distress yet its seen to be maladaptive and statistically deviant behaviour.

Clinicians generally rely upon the broad classification system provided by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) the latest of which is the DSM-5 which was published in 2013 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The DSM effectively provides clinicians with the defining features and symptoms for numerous psychological disorders across the life span.

Developmental psychopathology and developmental pathways/models

Social and age norms: Firstly, behaviours are defined as abnormal/normal according to context. The sociocultural and developmental context determines whether or not a behaviour is seen to be abnormal. Violations of important social norms (i.e., socioculturally appropriate behavioural expectations) may be seen as anything from quaint, odd/eccentric, to pathological or criminal. Behaviour also needs to be considered in terms of whats deemed to be developmentally appropriate for a given age (i.e., behaviour related age norms).

Understanding developmental pathways

Nature-Nurture : The interaction of nature and nurture can work in a myriad of ways to influence the development of normality and abnormality. For example, research supports the notion that a sizable susceptibility to depression is genetic (perhaps 40-60%) while environmental factors unique to the individual account for the remainder (Garber, 2010).

Interaction of biological, psychological, social factors: Consistent with the nature-nurture approach, the importance of integrated biological, psychological and social factors (biopsychosocial) are acknowledged in the development of maladaptive behaviour.

Risk and protective factors: Risk factors are those that contribute to the development of maladaptive behavior, vulnerability and relapse. Protective factors on the other hand, are those that deflect or mitigate those risk factors. Risk and protective factors encompass the biological, psychological and social. Not everyone exposed to a given risk or protective factor will have the same outcome.

Continuitydiscontinuity: The continuity approach is based on the notion that development is a gradual, cumulative and continual process, whereas, the discontinuity approach takes the view that development consists of a number of fairly discrete, qualitative steps or developmental stages. The fundamental question being asked here is whether or not childhood problems are passing phases (evidencing some form of discontinuity) or will carry forward into later life (evidencing continuity; Zarrella, Russolillo, Caviglia, & Perella, 2017).

Developmental pathways model

The concept of canalisation proposes that genetic influence steers a particular path of development (largely one of normality) that is differentially influenced by life experience.

During the life span though, both genetic/biological and environmental factors can interact to steer an individual away from the path of normality. The influence of environment is considered to be greater during the key formative years than in later life (i.e., an adverse experience can have a greater impact in childhood).

There are pathways potentially leading the individual to a state of abnormality. For example, some may start with:

favourable genetics and then experience adverse events that steer toward maladaptive behaviour and psychopathology

unfavourable genetics and then experience adverse events that steer toward maladaptive behaviour and psychopathology (Grossman et al., 2003).

Diathesis stress model

According to this model psychopathology results from the interaction of a persons predisposition to psychological problems and the experience of stressful events. For a vulnerable individual milder stress can result in a disorder whereas for someone who is resilient and does not have a vulnerability or diathesis (genetic makeup, physiology, set of cognitions, personality) to disorder it would take higher levels of stress to cause a disorder (and this may be only mild and temporary).

For a thorough explanation of key diathesis-stress interactions read pages 620-622 of your textbook.

Life span disorders

In this section, we will briefly examine the disorders that are commonly discussed at different stages of the life span, including: features of the disorder, prevalence, genetic and environmental influence, development course, and comorbidities.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A number of childhood disorders can be categorised as externalising problems (undercontrolled, acting out) or internalising problems (overcontrolled, bottling up); they are often a product of diathesis-stress or gene-environment interactions and persist into later life, though mild problems tend to be more transient. Females are more likely to exhibit internalising disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression) compared to males who are more likely to exhibit externalising disorders (e.g., ADHD, Conduct Disorder). In ASD there is evidence of both internalising and externalising behaviours

Features

ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder usually beginning in infancy. Levels of deficit vary substantially, hence the relatively recent move away from a categorical consideration to a dimensional (or spectrum) consideration in DSM-5. For example, developmental deficits can range from specific limitations of learning or executive functioning (e.g., attention, memory, problem-solving, impulse control, and multi-tasking) to global deficits in intelligence or social skills.

The dimensional aspect to the new conceptualisation also includes what was previously defined as Aspergers disorder. ASD is only diagnosed when deficits in communication are accompanied by obviously excessive repetitive behaviours, narrow range of interests, and preference for unvaried routine. Key DSM-5 (broad) diagnostic features are:

persistent impairment in reciprocal communication and social interaction

restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities

symptoms are present from early childhood and impact everyday functioning.

The severity levels of deficits in communication, and restricted repetitive behaviours are graded as; level 1 (requiring support); level 2 (requiring substantial support); or level 3 (requiring very substantial support).

Prevalence

Approximately 1% worldwide with males 4-5 times more likely to be diagnosed than females (APA, DSM-5). In Australia specifically, the ABS (2015) report prevalence to be 0.7% (1 in 150) with 81% being male.

Genetic influences

There are sizable genetic contributions. Heritability estimates for ASD based on twin concordance range from 37%-90% (APA, DSM-5). A review of 30 twin studies came to similar conclusions (Ronald & Hoekstra, 2011). Approximately 15% of ASD cases are associated with gene mutation (APA, DSM-5).

Environmental influences

There are a range of environmental contributors to ASD. For example, prenatal exposure to teratogens such as alcohol and Rubella (Hu 2013) and potentially, obesity, hypertension and diabetes in mothers (Krakowiak et al., 2012). Maternal and paternal age are independently associated with increased autism risk in offspring (Durkin et al., 2008) as is assisted reproductive technology (Fountain et al., 2015).

Developmental course

ASD is seen as a lifelong developmental condition except for in a small minority of cases. Those without serious deficits in IQ or social skills are more likely to have better outcomes though. In a review, Howlin and Moss (2012) noted that even with a normal IQ adults with ASD are disadvantaged in terms of employment opportunity, social relationships and quality of life. Approximately half will live at home, 25% will have only one friend, and 15% will enter into a long term sexual relationship.

Comorbidity

Comorbid disorders over the life span are not uncommon in those diagnosed with ASD and include, developmental coordination disorder, anxiety and depressive disorders, avoidant-restrictive food intake disorder (APA, DSM-5).

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Features

ADHD is an externalising disorder beginning in childhood featuring a persistent pattern of inattention (e.g., difficulty maintaining focus and following instructions, being disorganised) and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity (e.g., excessive motor-activity, and actions taken without forethought) interfering with functioning or development. A diagnosis of ADHD requires at least some symptoms to be present prior to age 12, and behaviours need to be evident in more than one context (i.e., beyond just the home environment). There should be evidence of impairment in social or academic functioning.

Prevalence

Across cultures the prevalence appears to be approximately 5% for children and 2.5% for adults, with males twice as likely to be diagnosed. Females are more likely to present with inattention while males usually present with hyperactivity (APA, DSM-5). The primarily inattentive form is more prevalent than the primarily hyperactive form though (Froehlich et al., 2007).

Genetic influences

There is considerable evidence of heritability: Overall family, twin and adoption studies suggest that heritability may be as high as 74%, and that a number of complex genetic variations may be involved (Faraone & Larsson 2019).

Environmental influences

Insecure attachment is associated with childhood ADHD (Storebo, 2016). Prenatal exposure to alcohol, nicotine and some medications, low birth weight, and maternal viral infection have all been implicated with the onset of ADHD (Pineda et al., 2007).

Developmental course

Approximately two-thirds of ADHD youth will continue to have issues in adulthood. Those with ADHD are at risk of a variety of impairments and maladjustment scenarios: academic difficulty, occupational and marriage failure, accidental injury, criminality, suicide and premature death (Faraone & Larsson 2019).

Comorbidity

Comorbid disorders over the life span are not uncommon in those diagnosed with ADHD and include, ASD, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder (when younger), anxiety and depressive disorders, and substance use disorders (in adulthood).

Depressive Disorders (Major Depressive Disorder)

Although depressive disorders can manifest at any point in the life span, there is evidence of major depressive disorder onset in childhood (some may argue as early as infancy). The primary diagnostic categories of depressive disorder are (a) Major Depressive Disorder and (b) Persistent Depressive Disorder (chronic depression).

Challenges across the life span

Topic 1 : Developmental psychopathologies

Introduction

Each stage of our life provides us with different challenges, which we need to cope with. For some though there are challenges, which they simply cannot master or see their way through successfully.

In this topic, we are going to look briefly at some of the psychological challenges that we tend to find at each stage of the life span. We will take a developmental perspective by considering the origins and course of maladaptive behaviour across the life span.

We will examine abnormal behaviour in comparison to normal development and briefly investigate the cultural, social and developmental norms that influence the recognition of abnormal behaviours. The topic will conclude as we investigate risk and protective factors that give rise to abnormal or healthy psychological development.

What do we consider abnormal?

In order to determine abnormality, trained clinicians rely upon broad criteria such as statistical deviance, maladaptiveness and personal distress. All three of these broad areas need to be considered when differentiating abnormality from normality.

Statistical Deviance

Abnormality may be determined by problematic behaviours that are outside the range for what might be considered normal. Where some of the behaviour might be expected within a given population, the deviance threshold might be determined by an increased frequency or intensity of the behaviour beyond that expected within the population. In some cases though, statistical deviance might be determined by a single instance of the behaviour. There is no agreed upon cut-off point in determining abnormality.

MaladaptivenessAbnormality may be determined by behaviour that interferes with adaptation or functioning in important areas of life, and/or poses a threat to the individual or others.

Personal Distress

Abnormality may be determined by an individuals level of felt distress.

Note that statistical deviance, maladaptiveness and personal distress may not always be in concert. For example, mania (abnormal and persistently elevated or expansive mood) may not cause personal distress yet its seen to be maladaptive and statistically deviant behaviour.

Clinicians generally rely upon the broad classification system provided by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) the latest of which is the DSM-5 which was published in 2013 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The DSM effectively provides clinicians with the defining features and symptoms for numerous psychological disorders across the life span.

Developmental psychopathology and developmental pathways/models

Social and age norms: Firstly, behaviours are defined as abnormal/normal according to context. The sociocultural and developmental context determines whether or not a behaviour is seen to be abnormal. Violations of important social norms (i.e., socioculturally appropriate behavioural expectations) may be seen as anything from quaint, odd/eccentric, to pathological or criminal. Behaviour also needs to be considered in terms of whats deemed to be developmentally appropriate for a given age (i.e., behaviour related age norms).

Understanding developmental pathways

Nature-nurture

The interaction of nature and nurture can work in a myriad of ways to influence the development of normality and abnormality. For example, research supports the notion that a sizable susceptibility to depression is genetic (perhaps 40-60%) while environmental factors unique to the individual account for the remainder (Garber, 2010).

Interaction of biological, psychological, social factors

Consistent with the nature-nurture approach, the importance of integrated biological, psychological and social factors (biopsychosocial) are acknowledged in the development of maladaptive behaviour.

Risk and protective factors

Risk factors are those that contribute to the development of maladaptive behaviour, vulnerability and relapse. Protective factors on the other hand, are those that deflect or mitigate those risk factors. Risk and protective factors encompass the biological, psychological and social. Not everyone exposed to a given risk or protective factor will have the same outcome.

Continuitydiscontinuity

The continuity approach is based on the notion that development is a gradual, cumulative and continual process, whereas, the discontinuity approach takes the view that development consists of a number of fairly discrete, qualitative steps or developmental stages. The fundamental question being asked here is whether or not childhood problems are passing phases (evidencing some form of discontinuity) or will carry forward into later life (evidencing continuity; Zarrella, Russolillo, Caviglia, & Perella, 2017).

Developmental pathways model

The concept of canalisation proposes that genetic influence steers a particular path of development (largely one of normality) that is differentially influenced by life experience.

During the life span though, both genetic/biological and environmental factors can interact to steer an individual away from the path of normality. The influence of environment is considered to be greater during the key formative years than in later life (i.e., an adverse experience can have a greater impact in childhood).

There are pathways potentially leading the individual to a state of abnormality. For example, some may start with:

favourable genetics and then experience adverse events that steer toward maladaptive behaviour and psychopathology

unfavourable genetics and then experience adverse events that steer toward maladaptive behaviour and psychopathology (Grossman et al., 2003).

Diathesis stress model

According to this model psychopathology results from the interaction of a persons predisposition to psychological problems and the experience of stressful events. For a vulnerable individual milder stress can result in a disorder whereas for someone who is resilient and does not have a vulnerability or diathesis (genetic makeup, physiology, set of cognitions, personality) to disorder it would take higher levels of stress to cause a disorder (and this may be only mild and temporary).

Life span disorders

In this section, we will briefly examine the disorders that are commonly discussed at different stages of the life span, including: features of the disorder, prevalence, genetic and environmental influence, development course, and comorbidities.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A number of childhood disorders can be categorised as externalising problems (undercontrolled, acting out) or internalising problems (overcontrolled, bottling up); they are often a product of diathesis-stress or gene-environment interactions and persist into later life, though mild problems tend to be more transient. Females are more likely to exhibit internalising disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression) compared to males who are more likely to exhibit externalising disorders (e.g., ADHD, Conduct Disorder). In ASD there is evidence of both internalising and externalising behaviours.

Features

ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder usually beginning in infancy. Levels of deficit vary substantially, hence the relatively recent move away from a categorical consideration to a dimensional (or spectrum) consideration in DSM-5. For example, developmental deficits can range from specific limitations of learning or executive functioning (e.g., attention, memory, problem-solving, impulse control, and multi-tasking) to global deficits in intelligence or social skills.

The dimensional aspect to the new conceptualisation also includes what was previously defined as Aspergers disorder. ASD is only diagnosed when deficits in communication are accompanied by obviously excessive repetitive behaviours, narrow range of interests, and preference for unvaried routine. Key DSM-5 (broad) diagnostic features are:

persistent impairment in reciprocal communication and social interaction

restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, or activities

symptoms are present from early childhood and impact everyday functioning.

The severity levels of deficits in communication, and restricted repetitive behaviours are graded as; level 1 (requiring support); level 2 (requiring substantial support); or level 3 (requiring very substantial support).

Prevalence

Approximately 1% worldwide with males 4-5 times more likely to be diagnosed than females (APA, DSM-5). In Australia specifically, the ABS (2015) report prevalence to be 0.7% (1 in 150) with 81% being male.

Genetic influences

There are sizable genetic contributions. Heritability estimates for ASD based on twin concordance range from 37%-90% (APA, DSM-5). A review of 30 twin studies came to similar conclusions (Ronald & Hoekstra, 2011). Approximately 15% of ASD cases are associated with gene mutation (APA, DSM-5).

Environmental influences

There are a range of environmental contributors to ASD. For example, prenatal exposure to teratogens such as alcohol and Rubella (Hu 2013) and potentially, obesity, hypertension and diabetes in mothers (Krakowiak et al., 2012). Maternal and paternal age are independently associated with increased autism risk in offspring (Durkin et al., 2008) as is assisted reproductive technology (Fountain et al., 2015).

Developmental course

ASD is seen as a lifelong developmental condition except for in a small minority of cases. Those without serious deficits in IQ or social skills are more likely to have better outcomes though. In a review, Howlin and Moss (2012) noted that even with a normal IQ adults with ASD are disadvantaged in terms of employment opportunity, social relationships and quality of life. Approximately half will live at home, 25% will have only one friend, and 15% will enter into a long term sexual relationship.

Comorbidity

Comorbid disorders over the life span are not uncommon in those diagnosed with ASD and include, developmental coordination disorder, anxiety and depressive disorders, avoidant-restrictive food intake disorder (APA, DSM-5).

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Slide 2 of 6

Features

ADHD is an externalising disorder beginning in childhood featuring a persistent pattern of inattention (e.g., difficulty maintaining focus and following instructions, being disorganised) and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity (e.g., excessive motor-activity, and actions taken without forethought) interfering with functioning or development. A diagnosis of ADHD requires at least some symptoms to be present prior to age 12, and behaviours need to be evident in more than one context (i.e., beyond just the home environment). There should be evidence of impairment in social or academic functioning.

Prevalence

Across cultures the prevalence appears to be approximately 5% for children and 2.5% for adults, with males twice as likely to be diagnosed. Females are more likely to present with inattention while males usually present with hyperactivity (APA, DSM-5). The primarily inattentive form is more prevalent than the primarily hyperactive form though (Froehlich et al., 2007).

Genetic influences

There is considerable evidence of heritability: Overall family, twin and adoption studies suggest that heritability may be as high as 74%, and that a number of complex genetic variations may be involved (Faraone & Larsson 2019).

Environmental influences

Insecure attachment is associated with childhood ADHD (Storebo, 2016). Prenatal exposure to alcohol, nicotine and some medications, low birth weight, and maternal viral infection have all been implicated with the onset of ADHD (Pineda et al., 2007).

Developmental course

Approximately two-thirds of ADHD youth will continue to have issues in adulthood. Those with ADHD are at risk of a variety of impairments and maladjustment scenarios: academic difficulty, occupational and marriage failure, accidental injury, criminality, suicide and premature death (Faraone & Larsson 2019).

Comorbidity

Comorbid disorders over the life span are not uncommon in those diagnosed with ADHD and include, ASD, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder (when younger), anxiety and depressive disorders, and substance use disorders (in adulthood).

Depressive Disorders (Major Depressive Disorder)

Although depressive disorders can manifest at any point in the life span, there is evidence of major depressive disorder onset in childhood (some may argue as early as infancy). The primary diagnostic categories of depressive disorder are (a) Major Depressive Disorder and (b) Persistent Depressive Disorder (chronic depression).

We will focus on Major Depressive Disorder in this subject. Persistent Depressive Disorder will be discussed in PY4205: Psychological Disorders and Interventions.

Features

Major depressive disorder is characterised by an episode(s) of at least 2 weeks duration where there is either depressed mood (more often seen as irritability in children) or loss of interest or felt pleasure in most activities. Four or more of the following also need to be present during this period: appetitive or weight changes not due to developmental change, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, difficulty concentrating or making decisions, thoughts of death or suicide, psychomotor agitation or retardation (APA, DSM-5). There should be evidence of distress or impairment in functioning.

Prevalence

Estimates vary: Rohde et al., (2013) report childhood prevalence to be approximately 2%. A Norway study found the prevalence of depression in pre-schoolers to be 2% (Wichstrom et al., 2012). A US study found the prevalence of depressive symptoms (as reported by parents) to be 5.7% in children aged 5-7; Fuhrmann et al., 2014). The US National Survey of Childrens Health (2016) identified the prevalence of depression (diagnosed) in children aged 6-11 to be 1.7%. Prevalence rose to 3.2% when expanding the age range to include adolescents (ages 3-17; Ghandour et al., 2019). The prevalence overall is higher among females (APA, DSM-5).

Genetic influences

First-degree family members of individuals with major depressive disorder are at 2-4 times greater risk of developing major depressive disorder than the general population. The heritability estimate overall is approximately 40%, with the personality trait of neuroticism accounting for most (APA, DSM-5).

Developmental course

Major Depressive disorder is more likely to be diagnosed in adolescence and adulthood than in childhood. Recurrence of discrete episodes is lower in childhood, however, the duration of an episode is expected to be longer (Rohde et al., 2013). Early onset depression is more predictive of recurring future depression (and psychopathology generally) and poorer outcomes over the life span, than is adolescent or later onset depression (Colman & Ataullahjan, 2010).

Comorbidity

Major depression over the life span may co-occur with several other mental health disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders, OCD, Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and substance related disorders (APS, DSM-5).

Anorexia Nervosa

Adolescents are generally regarded as being more vulnerable to the onset of psychological disorders than children, but no more vulnerable than adults. Your text suggests that up to 20 per cent at any given time experience the storm and stress of a psychological disorder.

There are several feeding and eating disorders (avoidant/restrictive, binging/purging types) however, anorexia nervosa is one that is more likely to manifest during adolescence (and differentially afflict females).

Features

Anorexia nervosa is characterised by three essential features:

persistent energy intake restriction leading to significantly lower than expected weight when considering development

intense fear of weight gain/fatness, or efforts to prevent weight gain

disturbance in self-perception of weight or shape, or lack of recognition of the seriousness of current low body weight.

The restricting type involves weight control via dieting, fasting and/or excessive exercise. The binge eating/purging type involves weight control via episodes of binge eating or purging (i.e., vomiting, laxatives, enemas, or diuretics). In both types the specifier is of recurrent behaviour lasting for at least 3 months (APA, DSM-5). A BMI < 15 kg/m2 is considered extreme on a range of values reflecting mild to extreme underweight.

Prevalence

The ratio of female to male prevalence of anorexia nervosa is approximately 10:1, and the 12 month prevalence for young females is 0.4% (APA, DSM-5). Batista et al., (2018) report the prevalence among young women to be 0.5%-1%, with the average age of onset as 17.

Genetic influences

There is increased risk of anorexia nervosa among first-degree relatives, and greater correspondence among MZ twins than DZ twins (APA, DSM-5). Heritability estimates range from 48-74% (Baker, Schaumberg, & Munn-Chernoff, 2017).

Environmental influences

There is increased risk of anorexia nervosa in cultures and occupations valuing thinness. Diagnosis is more common in urban areas of industrialised countries (APA, DSM-5). There is mixed evidence as to whether or not insecure attachment predisposes one to anorexia nervosa (Batista, 2018). However, girls with anorexia nervosa versus healthy controls, rate their families as more rigid and controlling, less communicative and cohesive (Laghi et al., 2017).

Developmental course

Anorexia nervosa more commonly first presents during adolescence or young adulthood (rarely on-setting after age 40). The course is typically highly variable, however, most will experience remission within 5 years. Anorexia nervosa is associated with a relatively poor prognosis, and has near the highest mortality rate of all mental disorders (Oldershaw, Startup, & Lavender, 2019). Death is more commonly associated with medical complications or suicide (APS, DSM-5).

Comorbidity

There is the likelihood of considerable comorbidity over the life span (i.e., bi-polar, depressive, OCD and anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders; APA, DSM-5).

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

Slide 5 of 6

In terms of DSM-5 disorders, this broad classification is reserved for those behaviours and substance intakes that activate internal reward systems. This not only includes sedatives, stimulants and hypnotics such as tobacco, cannabis, alcohol, opioids, various inhalants, and others; but also gambling. There is also potential scope to include similar addictive behaviours such as internet gaming, sex and exercise addiction, once diagnostic criteria and descriptors are established (APA, DSM-5). The diagnosis of substance use disorder specifically, is based on pathological patterns of behaviours related to that substance, including continued use despite these problems. We now turn to problematic alcohol use specifically.

Alcohol Use Disorder features

The disorder is defined by a variety of behaviours and physical symptoms, which can also include tolerance, withdrawal and craving. Problematic alcohol use needs to lead to clinically significant impairment or distress as manifested by at least two problematic behaviours within a 12 month period such as:

alcohol being consumed in larger amounts or over a longer period than intended

apersistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to curb use

drinking when its physically dangerous to do so

alcohol craving

consumption results in failure to fulfil obligations in school or elsewhere

tolerance (more alcohol is needed to achieve the same effect)

withdrawal.

Prevalence

In the US, the 12 month prevalence of alcohol use disorder is estimated to be 4.6% among 12-17 year olds and as high as 16% for those aged 18-29. Although Australian adolescent drinking is highly prevalent, there are limited data when it comes to explicit diagnosis of alcohol use disorder. Problematic drinking however, affects about 45% of Australian adults in that they are at risk from injury or health complications at least once a year (Freyer, Morley, & Haber, 2016). 82% of Australian 12-17 year olds self-reported having abstained from alcohol though in 2016 (versus 72% in 2013, AIHW 2018). Males are more likely to have higher rates of problematic drinking (APA, DSM-5).

Genetic influences

Approximately 40-60% of risk is inherited. The disorder is 3-4 times higher in close relatives of those with the diagnosis, and in the offspring of those diagnosed even when adopted out to parents without the disorder (APA, DSM-5).

Environmental influences

These include cultural and group permissive attitudes toward drinking, alcohol availability, suboptimal coping skills, and exaggerated positive expectations of alcohol consumption (APA, DSM-5).

Developmental course

Consumption of alcohol usually begins in adolescence. Consumption meeting diagnostic criteria peaks in late teens or early/mid 20s. Most that meet diagnostic criteria do so by late 30s, while 10% will onset beyond age 40. The course is highly variable given that many with the disorder will make multiple attempts to stop drinking. The typical individual with the disorder has a more promising prognosis than the more severe cases (APA, DSM-5).

Comorbidity

In adolescents, conduct disorder and antisocial behaviour might also be evident (as is the case with other substance-related disorders; APA, DSM-5).

Neurocognitive Disorders (NCD)

While some disorders may manifest earlier in the life span and continue into adulthood, as one ages the lifetime likelihood of developing a neurocognitive disorder resulting in some cognitive impairment increases. NCD can be acquired through disease or trauma (e.g., Parkinsons or Alzheimers disease, traumatic brain injury, HIV). Once collectively called the dementias, these conditions and their causes are not due to normal aging.

Alzheimers Disease features

The disorder is characterised by evidence of cognitive decline in relation to previous level of functioning in the areas of complex attention, executive function, learning and memory, language, perpetual, motor, or social cognition. In mild Alzheimers disease there must be decline in memory and learning. For a diagnosis of major Alzheimers disease there needs to be a deficit in at least one other domain as well. Onset and symptom progression is gradual.

Associated features

Mild presentations see behavioural issues, depression and/or apathy, Moderately severe presentations include psychotic features, irritability, agitation, combativeness, and wandering. In severe presentations there will be gait disturbance, incontinence and seizures.

Prevalence

Alzheimers disease increases markedly with age, the life time risk being 10-12% (Goldman et al., 2011). Australian data often dont distinguish between impairment and death due to Alzheimers disease and broader dementia. Alzheimers disease though may contribute to 60-70% of dementia cases worldwide (WHO, 2019). In Australia over 7% of all deaths in 2013 were attributed to the dementias group with 50 male deaths for every 100 female deaths (ABS, 2013). By the seventh decade 5%-10% of those in western countries will be diagnosed specifically with Alzheimers disease, increasing to 25% thereafter. Approximately 50% of those diagnosed will be between the ages of 75 and 84 (APS, DSM-5).

Genetic influences

There is familial clustering of Alzheimers disease. Those with a first-degree relative with Alzheimers disease have at least double the chance of also developing it (Goldman et al., 2011). Based largely on twin studies, heritability has been shown to account for anything from 20%-79% of the contribution to Alzheimers disease (Reynolds 2013). Specific gene mutations while having been found to substantially elevate the risk of developing Alzheimers disease, only account for a small minority of cases (less than 2%; Gatz 2007).

Environmental influences

Estimated environmental contributions to Alzheimers disease range from 21%-42%. Decreased education, head injury, obesity, and low physical activity are likely environmental contributors (Reynolds 2013).

Developmental course

There is no cure or possibility of reversal. Symptom onset is usually in the 80s and 90s, however, symptoms may manifest in those in the 50s and 60s. Alzheimers disease progresses gradually and may plateau at times (but mild leads to severe). Average survivability after diagnosis is approximately 10 years (APA, DSM-5).

Comorbidity

Most are elderly so are likely to have a number of medical conditions influencing the clinical course (e.g., cerebrovascular disease). Psychiatrically, bi-polar disorder may precede or be comorbid with Alzheimers disease. These is difficulty in disentangling the relationship between Alzheimers disease and depression given that depression may be a feature of Alzheimers disease, however, precedent depression may be a risk factor (Garcez, et al., 2015).

Topic 2 : Death: Biology and perspectives

Introduction

Biological death has been defined in terms of brain functioning. Death is not considered to have occurred until there is total brain death. Total brain death is an irreversible loss of functioning in the entire brain, including both the cerebral cortex, that is involved in thought, and the lower centres of the brain that control basic life processessuch as breathing (Lizza, 2011). As such, a coma patient whose heart and lungs are maintained through artificial means (e.g., a mechanical ventilator), and has no sign of functioning in the whole brain is considered to be dead.

However, some patients are unconscious but have brain stems that are still functioning, which allows them to breath, swallow and undergo sleep-wake cycles. Unfortunately, in these cases, it is unknown whether the patient retains awareness of their environment (i.e., cerebral cortex functioning), leading to difficulties in determining whether the person can be considered dead (Foley, 2011). These situations resulted in considerable debate regarding the definition of brain death (Bernat, 2014).

Inevitably, death is a consequence of aging, which we will consider next.

Reasons for Aging

Two theories for aging are the programmed theories of ageing (nature) and damage/error theories of aging (nurture).

Programmed theories of aging

This theory assumes that death is subject to a predictable genetic timetable. Evidence supporting programming theories, is observed from research showing that genetic variability accounts for differences in the ability to stay free of major chronic disease at older age (70 years old or more), and in longevity (Melzer et al., 2007; Reed & Dick, 2003).

According to the most promising theory within this group, the maximum life span of species is related to the Hayflick limitan estimated number of times a cell can divide. For example, the cell of a Galapagos tortoise can divide 90-125 times, while the human cell can only divide 40-60 times. The mechanism behind the Hayflick limit is telomeres, which are stretches of DNA that form the tips of chromosomes. Telomeres shorten with every cell division and govern the Hayflick limit (see Figure 6.2.1, Melzer et al., 2007).

Chronic stress is linked to shorter than normal white blood cell telomeres and is associated with heightened risk for cardiovascular disease (Epel et al., 2006). There is also evidence that stress, lack of exercise, smoking, obesity, and low socioeconomic status all result in shorter cell telomeres, leading to faster cellular aging (Cherkas et al., 2008). Researchers have recently determined that the enzyme telomerase (Greider et al., 2010) can be used to prevent telomeres from shortening, and keep cells replicating and working longer. Telomerase treatments can backfire, however, if they also make cancerous cells multiply more rapidly (Wang, 2010).

Damage/Error theories of ageing

These theories propose that an accumulation of haphazard or random damage to cells accumulate over the years, and ultimately causes death (Hayflick, 2004). Damage to cells that compromise their functioning is caused by free radicals, which are toxic by-products of metabolism, or the chemical reactions in cells such as those involved in food breakdown (Maynard et al., 2015). These free radicals damage other molecules in the body, including DNA. As more cells become affected, due to free radical damage to the genetic code in DNA, the bodys mechanism for repairing genetic damage is unable to keep up. Without intervention, more cells will function abnormally (or even cease to function), leading to death.

There are natural substances that can fight the effects of free radicals. Antioxidants such as vitamins E and C, can stabilise free radicals and neutralise their damaging effects on cells. In addition, these antioxidants may increase longevity by inhibiting free radical activity and in turn, help prevent age-related diseases.

The video below shows how free radicals affect the cells and how antioxidants are able to buffer those effects.

Watch: Antioxidants - vs - Free Radicals

Source: YouTube. Kyle Thornthwaite. (2012, Jan, 2). Antioxidants - vs - Free Radicals - Immune System. [Video File].https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCF6prDSrHEDeath rates across the life span

Death rates change across the life span. Infants are a vulnerable group, but there is a relatively small risk of dying during infancy, childhood or adolescence in developed nations. The majority of deaths in Australia occur in older adults (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2017). For the Indigenous Australian population, the infant mortality rate is approximately doubled compared to non-Indigenous Australians (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016). The life expectancy disparity between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians has shrunk in the last 50 years (Hoy et al., 2017), and reflects an increased attention to Indigenous social and health risk factors that influence their longevity.

The leading cause of death also changes with age. Infant deaths are mainly associated with complications in the period surrounding birth and congenital abnormalities. For children and adolescents, the leading cause of death tends to be unintentional injuries or accidents, and cancer. For young and middle-aged adults, the main causes of death are accidents and suicides, though cardiovascular disease also begins to appear at this age, perhaps due to a combination of an individuals genetic endowments and unhealthy lifestyle (Horiuchi et al., 2003). The incidence of chronic diseases then begins to dominate from the age of 40 all through to 80, with mental and neurological diseases, such as Alzheimers disease, becoming the top cause of death as individuals age. See figure 6.2.4 for a breakdown of the leading causes of death.

Figure 6.2.4. Causes of death in Australia by sex and age group, 20122014 (Adapted from Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2017).

Support for the dying

Hospice is a program that supports dying people and their families through a philosophy of caring rather than curing (Saunders, 2002).

Hospice care is now part of palliative care, aimed not at curing a disease or prolonging life but at meeting the physical, psychological and spiritual needs of a patient with terminal illness (Shannon, 2006).

In palliative care, pain control is emphasised. Patients in palliative care reported better quality of life and were 50% less likely, than those receiving standard care, to have clinically significant depression symptoms. They also tend to survive approximately three months longer, despite having received less aggressive medical treatment (Temel et al., 2010).

One of the biggest challenge in Australia is to increase the access of palliative care services to those living in the region and rural areas, where more hardship is expected due to associated costs and leaving home and family (Jansson et al., 2017).

Additionally, hospice services need to consider cultural practices. In China, for example, it is a taboo for health professionals to talk to dying patients about cancer because cancer is viewed as a death sentence, and it is believed that open talks about deaths may undermine hope and bring about an earlier death (Dong et al., 2016). Likewise, Indigenous people may be reluctant to embrace hospice services as these services may not support cultural practices such as preparing the spirit for the death journey (Duggleby et al., 2015).

Euthanasia

There has been great debate over the issue of euthanasiahastening the death of someone suffering from an incurable illness or injury. Active euthanasia, or mercy killing, is the deliberate action of causing the death of a person who is suffering. Passive euthanasia means allowing a terminally ill person to die of natural causes or omitting treatment that might otherwise sustain life (such as removing a feeding tube).

Lying between active and passive euthanasia is assisted dying, which involves providing to a person who wishes to die the means to do so, including physician-assisted suicide. For example, a doctor can prescribe sleeping pills at the request of a terminally ill patient who has made known the desire to die (Foley, 2011).

Active euthanasia is viewed in most Australian jurisdictions as murder, though is has been legalised in some European countries such as the Netherlands. Victoria legalised assisted dying for terminally ill patients in 2019. Under the Victorian legislation, an individual can gain access to lethal injection within two weeks of the request, with the support of two independent medical assessments. They must be over the age of 18, be sound of mind, have lived in Victoria for at least 12 months, and be suffering an intolerable illness.

Although there is considerable public support for physician-assisted dying, it seems that the presence of pain is an important criterion for assessing the appropriateness of euthanasia (Rae et al., 2015). There is considerably less support for euthanasia in the absence of pain, even if the person has an incurable disease or that he/she would need to be permanently dependent on others. Additionally, around 46% of Australians believe that mentally ill patients should not be given access to physician-assisted dying (Rae et al., 2015).

The majority of Australian doctors support the practice of passive euthanasia (83%). There is, however, less support for actioned physician-assistance (28%), which might be because, legally, doctors could be held accountable. Despite the risks, 6-7% of Australian doctors have reported complying with a patients request for physician-assisted suicide (Lofmak etal., 2008).

Topic 3 : Bereavement

Introduction

Bereavement is a state of loss that provides the occasion for grief and mourning, and is often experienced by the caregiver and family members. A model for bereavement is the dual-process model of bereavement (Stroebe & Schut, 1999). According to the dual-process model of bereavement (see figure 6.3.1), the bereaved oscillates between the emotional blow of losing a loved one and coping with the practical challenges of living. Loss oriented coping deals with ones emotions and reconciling oneself to the loss, while restoration-oriented coping focuses on managing daily living, mastering new roles and challenges. The idea is the bereaved needs to strike a balance between loss-oriented and restoration-oriented coping.

For example, working on practical tasks such as watching a movie, may give a widow relief from dealing with the painful emotions so that she can re-energise herself, before shifting her focus back on her loss. Ideally, people would oscillate between the two types of coping, as it would help them deal with the loss and step towards recovery. Overtime, emphasis should shift more towards restoration-oriented coping, and the bereaved should shift from negative to positive thoughts.

Resilience for the bereaved

Widow and widowers generally have a higher than average risk of death after suffering an unexpected loss of their partner (Shah et al., 2013). For those who served as caregivers for their loved ones, a deterioration in health may begin before death (Vable et al., 2015). Those who were chronically depressed before the loss tend to remain depressed even after four years. Those who were depressed before the death but recovered quickly afterwards, were likely experiencing caregiver burden/stress before the death and were relieved of the stress after it, with more than 70% admitting that the death came as a relief (Galatzer-levy & Bonannno, 2012).

Fortunately, a resilient pattern of adjustment, involving low levels of distress, is the most common pattern of response to death (Galatzer-levy & Bonannno, 2012). The resilient grievers were not cold, unfeeling people, but rather well adjusted and happily married people with good coping resources (Bonanno et al., 2002). Although they experienced emotional pain in the first months after the death, they were comforted most by positive thoughts of their partners and coped effectively with their loss (Bonanno, 2009). The resilience pattern observed in heterosexual families is also evident in homosexual families. Half of the partners of gay men who died of AIDS show resilience, even when they were HIV infected themselves, and stressed by their own illness and likely death (Bonnano et al., 2005).

Cross-cultural studies reveal that there are many ways to grieve. Bereaved individuals who fail to show much emotional distress during the early months of loss, do not seem to display delayed grief reaction (Boerner et al., 2013). Rather, many bereaved individuals revise their internal working models of self and others and continue their relationships with their deceased loved ones on new terms (Wortman & Boerner, 2007). Bereaved individuals maintain their attachment to the deceased indefinitely through continuing bonds. Bereavement rituals in some cultures (in particular Eastern Asian culture) are designed to ensure a continued bond between the living and the dead (Klass, 2001). Continuing bonds are helpful when they take the form of internal memories, of the deceased providing a secure base for becoming more independent. They are not helpful if they involved hallucinations and illusions that reflect a continuing effort to reunite with the deceased (Field & Filanosky, 2010).

In a study of 421 Australian adults who had lost a spouse, resilience was determined by measures of life satisfaction, self-perceived health, physical functioning, negative affect, and positive affect. There were large variations in the number of people who were resilient depending on the measures used (see Figure 6.3.2). This suggests that there is no one standard response to bereavement and resilience.

Supporting the grief

Grief reactions are influenced positively by the presence of a strong social support system, and negatively by additional life stressors (Parkes, 2006). Indeed, family members of all ages recover best when the family is cohesive and can share their feelings (Walsh & McGoldrick, 2013). Bereaved individuals reported that they were the most supported by family and friends who showed empathy, and allowed bereaved individuals to express painful feelings freely if and when they chose, rather than trying to cheer them up and talk them out of their grief (Dyregrove, 2003).

Bereaved individuals can also benefit from psychotherapy aimed at preventing or treating debilitating grief (Boelen et al., 2013). Interventions designed for the whole family can help family members to communicate more openly and support each other. Mutual support groups are another good support option (Murphy et al., 2003). The Compassionate Friends Organisation, as an example, operates in Australia and brings bereaved partners together to offer practical advice, emotional support and friendship.